RadiationCamera.cpp

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#include "RadiationModel.h"
#include "LensFlare.h"
 
#include <queue>
#include <set>
#include <stack>
#include <sstream>
#include <filesystem>
 
#include "global.h"
 
using namespace helios;
 
void RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera(const std::string &camera_label, const std::vector<std::string> &band_label, const helios::vec3 &position, const helios::vec3 &lookat, const CameraProperties &camera_properties, uint antialiasing_samples) {
 
    if (antialiasing_samples == 0) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera): The model requires at least 1 antialiasing sample to run.");
    } else if (camera_properties.camera_resolution.x <= 0 || camera_properties.camera_resolution.y <= 0) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera): Camera resolution must be at least 1x1.");
    } else if (camera_properties.HFOV < 0 || camera_properties.HFOV > 180.f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera): Camera horizontal field of view must be between 0 and 180 degrees.");
    }
 
    // Warn if any bound band has scattering depth 0 — such bands will not populate
    // camera pixels, because camera ray paths rely on scattered flux from primitives.
    // This is a common silent-failure mode when users set up a new camera.
    // Aggregated so a camera with many zero-depth bands only prints one summary line.
    {
        helios::WarningAggregator warnings;
        warnings.setEnabled(message_flag);
        for (const auto &band : band_label) {
            auto it = radiation_bands.find(band);
            if (it != radiation_bands.end() && it->second.scatteringDepth == 0) {
                warnings.addWarning("camera_band_zero_scattering_depth",
                                    "Camera '" + camera_label + "' is bound to band '" + band +
                                    "' which has scatteringDepth == 0. Camera pixels for this band will be "
                                    "zero because camera ray tracing relies on scattered flux. Call "
                                    "setScatteringDepth(\"" + band + "\", >=1) before runBand().");
            }
        }
        warnings.report(std::cerr);
    }
 
    // Auto-calculate FOV_aspect_ratio from camera resolution to ensure square pixels
    CameraProperties modified_properties = camera_properties;
    if (camera_properties.FOV_aspect_ratio != 0.f) {
        std::cerr << "WARNING (RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera): FOV_aspect_ratio is deprecated and will be ignored. The value is auto-calculated from camera_resolution to ensure square pixels." << std::endl;
    }
    modified_properties.FOV_aspect_ratio = float(camera_properties.camera_resolution.x) / float(camera_properties.camera_resolution.y);
 
    RadiationCamera camera(camera_label, band_label, position, lookat, modified_properties, antialiasing_samples);
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        cameras.emplace(camera_label, camera);
    } else {
        if (message_flag) {
            std::cout << "Camera with label " << camera_label << "already exists. Existing properties will be replaced by new inputs." << std::endl;
        }
        cameras.erase(camera_label);
        cameras.emplace(camera_label, camera);
    }
 
    if (iscameravisualizationenabled) {
        buildCameraModelGeometry(camera_label);
    }
 
    // Auto-populate camera metadata (does not enable JSON writing)
    CameraMetadata metadata;
    populateCameraMetadata(camera_label, metadata);
    camera_metadata[camera_label] = metadata;
 
    radiativepropertiesneedupdate = true;
}
 
void RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera(const std::string &camera_label, const std::vector<std::string> &band_label, const helios::vec3 &position, const helios::SphericalCoord &viewing_direction, const CameraProperties &camera_properties,
                                        uint antialiasing_samples) {
 
    vec3 lookat = position + sphere2cart(viewing_direction);
    addRadiationCamera(camera_label, band_label, position, lookat, camera_properties, antialiasing_samples);
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraSpectralResponse(const std::string &camera_label, const std::string &band_label, const std::string &global_data) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (setCameraSpectralResponse): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    } else if (!doesBandExist(band_label)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (setCameraSpectralResponse): Band '" + band_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    cameras.at(camera_label).band_spectral_response[band_label] = global_data;
 
    radiativepropertiesneedupdate = true;
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraSpectralResponseFromLibrary(const std::string &camera_label, const std::string &camera_library_name) {
 
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (setCameraSpectralResponseFromLibrary): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    const auto &band_labels = cameras.at(camera_label).band_labels;
 
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist("spectral_library_loaded")) {
        context->loadXML(helios::resolvePluginAsset("radiation", "spectral_data/camera_spectral_library.xml").string().c_str());
    }
 
    for (const auto &band: band_labels) {
        std::string response_spectrum = camera_library_name + "_" + band;
        if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(response_spectrum.c_str()) || context->getGlobalDataType(response_spectrum.c_str()) != HELIOS_TYPE_VEC2) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (setCameraSpectralResponseFromLibrary): Band '" + band + "' referenced in spectral library camera " + camera_library_name + " does not exist for camera '" + camera_label + "'.");
        }
 
        cameras.at(camera_label).band_spectral_response[band] = response_spectrum;
    }
 
    radiativepropertiesneedupdate = true;
}
 
void RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary(const std::string &camera_label, const std::string &library_camera_label, const helios::vec3 &position, const helios::vec3 &lookat, uint antialiasing_samples) {
    // Call the overloaded version with empty band_labels to use XML labels
    addRadiationCameraFromLibrary(camera_label, library_camera_label, position, lookat, antialiasing_samples, std::vector<std::string>());
}
 
void RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary(const std::string &camera_label, const std::string &library_camera_label, const helios::vec3 &position, const helios::vec3 &lookat, uint antialiasing_samples,
                                                   const std::vector<std::string> &custom_band_labels) {
 
    // Resolve library file path
    std::filesystem::path library_path = helios::resolvePluginAsset("radiation", "camera_library/camera_library.xml");
 
    // Load and parse XML file using pugixml
    pugi::xml_document xmldoc;
    pugi::xml_parse_result result = xmldoc.load_file(library_path.string().c_str());
 
    if (!result) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Failed to load camera library file '" + library_path.string() + "'. " + result.description());
    }
 
    pugi::xml_node helios_node = xmldoc.child("helios");
    if (helios_node.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Camera library XML must have '<helios>' root tag.");
    }
 
    // Find the camera node with matching label
    pugi::xml_node camera_node;
    for (pugi::xml_node cam = helios_node.child("camera"); cam; cam = cam.next_sibling("camera")) {
        std::string label = cam.attribute("label").value();
        if (label == library_camera_label) {
            camera_node = cam;
            break;
        }
    }
 
    if (camera_node.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Camera '" + library_camera_label + "' not found in camera library.");
    }
 
    // Parse camera parameters
    std::string manufacturer = camera_node.child("manufacturer").child_value();
    std::string model = camera_node.child("model").child_value();
 
    // Parse camera type (required field)
    std::string camera_type = camera_node.child("type").child_value();
    if (camera_type.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Missing required 'type' field for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
    if (camera_type != "rgb" && camera_type != "spectral" && camera_type != "thermal") {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid camera type '" + camera_type + "' for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'. Must be one of: 'rgb', 'spectral', or 'thermal'.");
    }
 
    float sensor_width_mm;
    if (!helios::parse_float(camera_node.child("sensor_width_mm").child_value(), sensor_width_mm)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid or missing sensor_width_mm for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    int resolution_width;
    if (!helios::parse_int(camera_node.child("resolution_width").child_value(), resolution_width)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid or missing resolution_width for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    int resolution_height;
    if (!helios::parse_int(camera_node.child("resolution_height").child_value(), resolution_height)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid or missing resolution_height for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    // Parse lens optical focal length (physical focal length, not 35mm equivalent)
    float focal_length_mm;
    if (!helios::parse_float(camera_node.child("focal_length_mm").child_value(), focal_length_mm)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid or missing focal_length_mm for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    float lens_diameter_mm;
    if (!helios::parse_float(camera_node.child("lens_diameter_mm").child_value(), lens_diameter_mm)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid or missing lens_diameter_mm for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    // Parse optional focal plane distance (working distance), default to 2.0m if not specified
    float focal_plane_distance_m = 2.0f;
    if (camera_node.child("focal_plane_distance_m")) {
        if (!helios::parse_float(camera_node.child("focal_plane_distance_m").child_value(), focal_plane_distance_m)) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid focal_plane_distance_m for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
        }
    }
 
    // Parse optional lens metadata
    std::string lens_make = camera_node.child("lens_make").child_value();
    std::string lens_model = camera_node.child("lens_model").child_value();
    std::string lens_specification = camera_node.child("lens_specification").child_value();
 
    // Parse optional exposure mode (default: "auto")
    std::string exposure_mode = camera_node.child("exposure").child_value();
    if (exposure_mode.empty()) {
        exposure_mode = "auto"; // Default to auto exposure
    }
 
    // Parse optional shutter speed (default: 1/125 second)
    float shutter_speed = 1.0f / 125.0f;
    if (camera_node.child("shutter_speed")) {
        if (!helios::parse_float(camera_node.child("shutter_speed").child_value(), shutter_speed)) {
            std::cerr << "WARNING (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid shutter_speed for camera '" << library_camera_label << "'. Using default 1/125 second." << std::endl;
            shutter_speed = 1.0f / 125.0f;
        }
    }
 
    // Parse optional white balance mode (default: "auto")
    std::string white_balance_mode = camera_node.child("white_balance").child_value();
    if (white_balance_mode.empty()) {
        white_balance_mode = "auto"; // Default to auto white balance
    } else if (white_balance_mode != "auto" && white_balance_mode != "off") {
        std::cerr << "WARNING (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Invalid white_balance mode '" << white_balance_mode << "' for camera '" << library_camera_label << "'. Must be 'auto' or 'off'. Using default 'auto'." << std::endl;
        white_balance_mode = "auto";
    }
 
    // Build CameraProperties struct
    CameraProperties camera_properties;
    camera_properties.camera_resolution = helios::make_int2(resolution_width, resolution_height);
    camera_properties.sensor_width_mm = sensor_width_mm;
 
    // Calculate HFOV from lens optical focal length and sensor width
    // HFOV = 2 * atan(sensor_width / (2 * optical_focal_length))
    float HFOV_rad = 2.0f * atan(sensor_width_mm / (2.0f * focal_length_mm));
    camera_properties.HFOV = HFOV_rad * 180.0f / M_PI;
 
    // Set focal plane distance (working distance for ray generation)
    camera_properties.focal_plane_distance = focal_plane_distance_m;
 
    // Convert lens optical focal length from mm to meters (for f-number calculations)
    camera_properties.lens_focal_length = focal_length_mm / 1000.0f;
 
    // Convert lens diameter from mm to meters
    camera_properties.lens_diameter = lens_diameter_mm / 1000.0f;
 
    // FOV aspect ratio will be auto-calculated
    camera_properties.FOV_aspect_ratio = 0.0f;
 
    // Store manufacturer separately so EXIF can write a proper `Make` tag distinct from `Model`.
    // The `model` field retains the legacy "<manufacturer> <model>" concatenation for backwards
    // compatibility with the JSON sidecar metadata path.
    camera_properties.manufacturer = manufacturer;
    camera_properties.model = manufacturer + " " + model;
 
    // Set lens metadata
    camera_properties.lens_make = lens_make;
    camera_properties.lens_model = lens_model;
    camera_properties.lens_specification = lens_specification;
 
    // Set exposure settings
    camera_properties.exposure = exposure_mode;
    camera_properties.shutter_speed = shutter_speed;
 
    // Set white balance mode
    camera_properties.white_balance = white_balance_mode;
 
    // Parse spectral response data and store in global data
    // xml_band_labels stores the band labels from the XML file (used for global data naming)
    std::vector<std::string> xml_band_labels;
    // spectral_wavelength_ranges stores the wavelength range for each band (for auto-creating bands)
    std::vector<std::pair<float, float>> spectral_wavelength_ranges;
 
    for (pugi::xml_node spectral_node = camera_node.child("spectral_response"); spectral_node; spectral_node = spectral_node.next_sibling("spectral_response")) {
 
        std::string xml_band_label = spectral_node.attribute("label").value();
        if (xml_band_label.empty()) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): spectral_response node missing 'label' attribute for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
        }
 
        xml_band_labels.push_back(xml_band_label);
 
        // Parse wavelength-response pairs
        std::vector<helios::vec2> spectral_data;
        std::string data_str = spectral_node.child_value();
 
        if (!data_str.empty()) {
            std::istringstream data_stream(data_str);
            float wavelength, response;
            while (data_stream >> wavelength >> response) {
                spectral_data.push_back(helios::make_vec2(wavelength, response));
            }
        }
 
        if (spectral_data.empty()) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Empty spectral response data for band '" + xml_band_label + "' in camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
        }
 
        // Store wavelength range for potential band creation
        spectral_wavelength_ranges.emplace_back(spectral_data.front().x, spectral_data.back().x);
 
        // Store spectral response in global data with naming convention using XML labels
        std::string global_data_label = library_camera_label + "_" + xml_band_label;
        context->setGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), spectral_data);
    }
 
    if (xml_band_labels.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): No spectral response data found for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    // Determine effective band labels: use custom labels if provided, otherwise use XML labels
    std::vector<std::string> effective_band_labels;
    if (!custom_band_labels.empty()) {
        if (custom_band_labels.size() != xml_band_labels.size()) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): custom_band_labels size (" + std::to_string(custom_band_labels.size()) + ") does not match number of spectral responses in library (" +
                                 std::to_string(xml_band_labels.size()) + ") for camera '" + library_camera_label + "'.");
        }
        effective_band_labels = custom_band_labels;
    } else {
        effective_band_labels = xml_band_labels;
    }
 
    // Add radiation bands if they don't exist (using effective band labels)
    for (size_t i = 0; i < effective_band_labels.size(); i++) {
        const std::string &band_label = effective_band_labels[i];
        if (!doesBandExist(band_label)) {
            float min_wavelength = spectral_wavelength_ranges[i].first;
            float max_wavelength = spectral_wavelength_ranges[i].second;
            addRadiationBand(band_label, min_wavelength, max_wavelength);
 
            // Disable emission for camera bands
            disableEmission(band_label);
 
            // Set scattering depth
            setScatteringDepth(band_label, 3);
 
            std::cout << "WARNING (RadiationModel::addRadiationCameraFromLibrary): Band '" << band_label << "' did not exist and was automatically created with wavelength range [" << min_wavelength << ", " << max_wavelength << "] nm." << std::endl;
        }
    }
 
    // Create the camera using existing addRadiationCamera method (with effective band labels)
    addRadiationCamera(camera_label, effective_band_labels, position, lookat, camera_properties, antialiasing_samples);
 
    // Set the camera type
    cameras.at(camera_label).camera_type = camera_type;
 
    // Set spectral responses from the global data we created (mapping effective labels to XML labels)
    for (size_t i = 0; i < effective_band_labels.size(); i++) {
        std::string global_data_label = library_camera_label + "_" + xml_band_labels[i];
        setCameraSpectralResponse(camera_label, effective_band_labels[i], global_data_label);
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraPosition(const std::string &camera_label, const helios::vec3 &position) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraPosition): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    } else if (position == cameras.at(camera_label).lookat) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraPosition): Camera position cannot be equal to the 'lookat' position.");
    }
 
    cameras.at(camera_label).position = position;
 
    if (iscameravisualizationenabled) {
        updateCameraModelPosition(camera_label);
    }
}
 
helios::vec3 RadiationModel::getCameraPosition(const std::string &camera_label) const {
 
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::getCameraPosition): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    return cameras.at(camera_label).position;
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraLookat(const std::string &camera_label, const helios::vec3 &lookat) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLookat): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    cameras.at(camera_label).lookat = lookat;
 
    if (iscameravisualizationenabled) {
        updateCameraModelPosition(camera_label);
    }
}
 
helios::vec3 RadiationModel::getCameraLookat(const std::string &camera_label) const {
 
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::getCameraLookat): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    return cameras.at(camera_label).lookat;
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraOrientation(const std::string &camera_label, const helios::vec3 &direction) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraOrientation): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    cameras.at(camera_label).lookat = cameras.at(camera_label).position + direction;
 
    if (iscameravisualizationenabled) {
        updateCameraModelPosition(camera_label);
    }
}
 
helios::SphericalCoord RadiationModel::getCameraOrientation(const std::string &camera_label) const {
 
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::getCameraOrientation): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    return cart2sphere(cameras.at(camera_label).lookat - cameras.at(camera_label).position);
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraOrientation(const std::string &camera_label, const helios::SphericalCoord &direction) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraOrientation): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    cameras.at(camera_label).lookat = cameras.at(camera_label).position + sphere2cart(direction);
 
    if (iscameravisualizationenabled) {
        updateCameraModelPosition(camera_label);
    }
}
 
CameraProperties RadiationModel::getCameraParameters(const std::string &camera_label) const {
 
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::getCameraParameters): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Get reference to camera
    const auto &camera = cameras.at(camera_label);
 
    // Create and populate CameraProperties struct
    CameraProperties camera_properties;
    camera_properties.camera_resolution = camera.resolution;
    camera_properties.HFOV = camera.HFOV_degrees;
    camera_properties.lens_diameter = camera.lens_diameter;
    camera_properties.focal_plane_distance = camera.focal_length;
    camera_properties.lens_focal_length = camera.lens_focal_length;
    camera_properties.sensor_width_mm = camera.sensor_width_mm;
    camera_properties.manufacturer = camera.manufacturer;
    camera_properties.model = camera.model;
    camera_properties.lens_make = camera.lens_make;
    camera_properties.lens_model = camera.lens_model;
    camera_properties.lens_specification = camera.lens_specification;
    camera_properties.exposure = camera.exposure;
    camera_properties.shutter_speed = camera.shutter_speed;
    camera_properties.white_balance = camera.white_balance;
    camera_properties.camera_zoom = camera.camera_zoom;
    camera_properties.FOV_aspect_ratio = camera.FOV_aspect_ratio;
 
    return camera_properties;
}
 
void RadiationModel::updateCameraParameters(const std::string &camera_label, const CameraProperties &camera_properties) {
 
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::updateCameraParameters): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Validate camera properties
    if (camera_properties.camera_resolution.x <= 0 || camera_properties.camera_resolution.y <= 0) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::updateCameraParameters): Camera resolution must be at least 1x1.");
    } else if (camera_properties.HFOV <= 0 || camera_properties.HFOV >= 180.f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::updateCameraParameters): Camera horizontal field of view must be between 0 and 180 degrees.");
    } else if (camera_properties.camera_zoom <= 0.0f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::updateCameraParameters): camera_zoom must be greater than 0.");
    }
 
    // Get reference to camera
    auto &camera = cameras.at(camera_label);
 
    // Update camera parameters
    camera.resolution = camera_properties.camera_resolution;
    camera.HFOV_degrees = camera_properties.HFOV;
    camera.lens_diameter = camera_properties.lens_diameter;
    camera.focal_length = camera_properties.focal_plane_distance;
    camera.lens_focal_length = camera_properties.lens_focal_length;
    camera.sensor_width_mm = camera_properties.sensor_width_mm;
    camera.manufacturer = camera_properties.manufacturer;
    camera.model = camera_properties.model;
    camera.exposure = camera_properties.exposure;
    camera.shutter_speed = camera_properties.shutter_speed;
    camera.white_balance = camera_properties.white_balance;
    camera.camera_zoom = camera_properties.camera_zoom;
 
    // Recalculate FOV_aspect_ratio to ensure square pixels
    camera.FOV_aspect_ratio = float(camera.resolution.x) / float(camera.resolution.y);
 
    // Flag that radiative properties need to be updated
    radiativepropertiesneedupdate = true;
 
    // Update camera visualization if enabled
    if (iscameravisualizationenabled) {
        updateCameraModelPosition(camera_label);
    }
}
 
std::vector<std::string> RadiationModel::getAllCameraLabels() {
    std::vector<std::string> labels(cameras.size());
    uint cam = 0;
    for (const auto &camera: cameras) {
        labels.at(cam) = camera.second.label;
        cam++;
    }
    return labels;
}
 
std::string RadiationModel::writeCameraImage(const std::string &camera, const std::vector<std::string> &bands, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame, float flux_to_pixel_conversion) {
 
    // check if camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera) == cameras.end()) {
        std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): camera with label " << camera << " does not exist. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
        return "";
    }
 
    if (bands.size() != 1 && bands.size() != 3) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): input vector of band labels should either have length of 1 (grayscale image) or length of 3 (RGB image). Skipping image write for this camera.");
    }
 
    std::vector<std::vector<float>> camera_data(bands.size());
 
    uint b = 0;
    for (const auto &band: bands) {
 
        // check if band exists
        if (std::find(cameras.at(camera).band_labels.begin(), cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end(), band) == cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end()) {
            std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): camera " << camera << " band with label " << band << " does not exist. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
            return "";
        }
 
        camera_data.at(b) = cameras.at(camera).pixel_data.at(band);
 
        b++;
    }
 
    // Apply sRGB gamma compression for 3-channel (RGB) images
    // This is done on the copy, preserving the original linear data
    bool is_rgb = (camera_data.size() == 3);
    if (is_rgb) {
        for (auto &band_data: camera_data) {
            for (float &v: band_data) {
                v = RadiationCamera::lin_to_srgb(std::fmaxf(0.0f, v));
            }
        }
    }
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".jpeg";
    } else {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << ".jpeg";
    }
    std::ofstream testfile(outfile.str());
 
    if (!testfile.is_open()) {
        std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): image file " << outfile.str() << " could not be opened. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
        return "";
    }
    testfile.close();
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(camera).resolution;
 
    std::vector<RGBcolor> pixel_data_RGB(camera_resolution.x * camera_resolution.y);
 
    RGBcolor pixel_color;
    for (uint j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (uint i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            if (camera_data.size() == 1) {
                float c = camera_data.front().at(j * camera_resolution.x + i);
                pixel_color = make_RGBcolor(c, c, c);
            } else {
                pixel_color = make_RGBcolor(camera_data.at(0).at(j * camera_resolution.x + i), camera_data.at(1).at(j * camera_resolution.x + i), camera_data.at(2).at(j * camera_resolution.x + i));
            }
            pixel_color.scale(flux_to_pixel_conversion);
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
            uint jj = camera_resolution.y - j - 1;
            pixel_data_RGB.at(jj * camera_resolution.x + ii) = pixel_color;
        }
    }
 
    helios::ImageEXIFData exif;
    populateImageEXIF(camera, exif);
    writeJPEG(outfile.str(), camera_resolution.x, camera_resolution.y, pixel_data_RGB, exif);
 
    std::string image_filepath = outfile.str();
 
    // Write JSON metadata if enabled for this camera
    if (metadata_enabled_cameras.find(camera) != metadata_enabled_cameras.end()) {
        // Preserve any existing image_processing parameters (e.g., from applyCameraImageCorrections)
        CameraMetadata::ImageProcessingProperties saved_image_processing;
        if (camera_metadata.find(camera) != camera_metadata.end()) {
            saved_image_processing = camera_metadata.at(camera).image_processing;
        }
 
        // Re-populate metadata to capture any new data (e.g., agronomic properties)
        CameraMetadata metadata;
        populateCameraMetadata(camera, metadata);
 
        // Restore image_processing parameters
        metadata.image_processing = saved_image_processing;
 
        // Copy applied exposure gain and white balance factors from camera object
        metadata.image_processing.exposure_gain = cameras.at(camera).applied_exposure_gain;
        metadata.image_processing.white_balance_factors = cameras.at(camera).applied_white_balance_factors;
 
        // Set color space based on channel count (sRGB for RGB, linear for grayscale)
        metadata.image_processing.color_space = is_rgb ? "sRGB" : "linear";
 
        // Extract just the filename (without directory path) for portability
        size_t last_slash = image_filepath.find_last_of("/\\");
        std::string filename_only = (last_slash != std::string::npos) ? image_filepath.substr(last_slash + 1) : image_filepath;
        metadata.path = filename_only;
 
        // Store updated metadata and write JSON file
        camera_metadata[camera] = metadata;
        writeCameraMetadataFile(camera, output_path);
    }
 
    return image_filepath;
}
 
std::string RadiationModel::writeNormCameraImage(const std::string &camera, const std::vector<std::string> &bands, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
    float maxval = 0;
    // Find maximum mean value over all bands
    for (const std::string &band: bands) {
        std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + camera + "_" + band;
        if (std::find(cameras.at(camera).band_labels.begin(), cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end(), band) == cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end()) {
            std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeNormCameraImage): camera " << camera << " band with label " << band << " does not exist. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
            return "";
        } else if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
            std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeNormCameraImage): image data for camera " << camera << ", band " << band << " has not been created. Did you run the radiation model? Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
            return "";
        }
        std::vector<float> cameradata;
        context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), cameradata);
        for (float val: cameradata) {
            if (val > maxval) {
                maxval = val;
            }
        }
    }
    // Normalize all bands
    for (const std::string &band: bands) {
        std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + camera + "_" + band;
        std::vector<float> cameradata;
        context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), cameradata);
        for (float &val: cameradata) {
            val = val / maxval;
        }
        context->setGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), cameradata);
    }
 
    return RadiationModel::writeCameraImage(camera, bands, imagefile_base, image_path, frame);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeCameraImageData(const std::string &camera, const std::string &band, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
 
    // check if camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera) == cameras.end()) {
        std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageData): camera with label " << camera << " does not exist. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
        return;
    }
 
    std::vector<float> camera_data;
 
    // check if band exists
    if (std::find(cameras.at(camera).band_labels.begin(), cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end(), band) == cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end()) {
        std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageData): camera " << camera << " band with label " << band << " does not exist. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
        return;
    }
 
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + camera + "_" + band;
 
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageData): image data for camera " << camera << ", band " << band << " has not been created. Did you run the radiation model? Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
        return;
    }
 
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_data);
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeCameraImage): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".txt";
    } else {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << ".txt";
    }
 
    std::ofstream outfilestream(outfile.str());
 
    if (!outfilestream.is_open()) {
        std::cout << "ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageData): image file " << outfile.str() << " could not be opened. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission. Skipping image write for this camera." << std::endl;
        return;
    }
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(camera).resolution;
 
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = camera_resolution.x - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            outfilestream << camera_data.at(j * camera_resolution.x + i) << " ";
        }
        outfilestream << "\n";
    }
 
    outfilestream.close();
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR(const std::string &camera, const std::string &band, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(camera) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Camera '" + camera + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    if (std::find(cameras.at(camera).band_labels.begin(), cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end(), band) == cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Camera '" + camera + "' band with label '" + band + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + camera + "_" + band;
 
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Image data for camera '" + camera + "', band '" + band + "' has not been created. Did you run the radiation model?");
    }
 
    std::vector<float> camera_data;
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_data);
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame << ".exr";
    } else {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << ".exr";
    }
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(camera).resolution;
 
    // Apply horizontal flip to match writeCameraImageData() convention
    std::vector<float> flipped_data(camera_resolution.x * camera_resolution.y);
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            int ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
            flipped_data[j * camera_resolution.x + i] = camera_data[j * camera_resolution.x + ii];
        }
    }
 
    helios::writeEXR(outfile.str(), camera_resolution.x, camera_resolution.y, flipped_data);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR(const std::string &camera, const std::vector<std::string> &bands, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(camera) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Camera '" + camera + "' does not exist.");
    }
    if (bands.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): 'bands' vector is empty.");
    }
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(camera).resolution;
    size_t num_pixels = camera_resolution.x * camera_resolution.y;
 
    std::vector<std::vector<float>> channel_data(bands.size());
    std::vector<std::string> channel_names(bands.size());
 
    for (size_t b = 0; b < bands.size(); b++) {
        const std::string &band = bands[b];
 
        if (std::find(cameras.at(camera).band_labels.begin(), cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end(), band) == cameras.at(camera).band_labels.end()) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Camera '" + camera + "' band with label '" + band + "' does not exist.");
        }
 
        std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + camera + "_" + band;
        if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Image data for camera '" + camera + "', band '" + band + "' has not been created. Did you run the radiation model?");
        }
 
        std::vector<float> raw_data;
        context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), raw_data);
 
        // Apply horizontal flip to match writeCameraImageData() convention
        channel_data[b].resize(num_pixels);
        for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
            for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
                int ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
                channel_data[b][j * camera_resolution.x + i] = raw_data[j * camera_resolution.x + ii];
            }
        }
 
        channel_names[b] = band;
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraImageDataEXR): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame << ".exr";
    } else {
        outfile << camera << "_" << imagefile_base << ".exr";
    }
 
    helios::writeEXR(outfile.str(), camera_resolution.x, camera_resolution.y, channel_data, channel_names);
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraCalibration(CameraCalibration *CameraCalibration) {
    cameracalibration = CameraCalibration;
    calibration_flag = true;
}
 
void RadiationModel::updateCameraResponse(const std::string &orginalcameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &sourcelabels_raw, const std::vector<std::string> &cameraresponselabels, vec2 &wavelengthrange,
                                          const std::vector<std::vector<float>> &truevalues, const std::string &calibratedmark) {
 
    std::vector<std::string> objectlabels;
    vec2 wavelengthrange_c = wavelengthrange;
    cameracalibration->preprocessSpectra(sourcelabels_raw, cameraresponselabels, objectlabels, wavelengthrange_c);
 
    RadiationCamera calibratecamera = cameras.at(orginalcameralabel);
    CameraProperties cameraproperties;
    cameraproperties.HFOV = calibratecamera.HFOV_degrees;
    cameraproperties.camera_resolution = calibratecamera.resolution;
    cameraproperties.focal_plane_distance = calibratecamera.focal_length; // Working distance for ray generation
    cameraproperties.lens_focal_length = calibratecamera.lens_focal_length; // Optical focal length for aperture
    cameraproperties.lens_diameter = calibratecamera.lens_diameter;
    cameraproperties.FOV_aspect_ratio = calibratecamera.FOV_aspect_ratio;
    cameraproperties.exposure = calibratecamera.exposure;
    cameraproperties.shutter_speed = calibratecamera.shutter_speed;
 
    std::vector<uint> UUIDs_target = cameracalibration->getAllColorBoardUUIDs();
    std::string cameralabel = "calibration";
    std::map<uint, std::vector<vec2>> simulatedcolorboardspectra;
    for (uint UUID: UUIDs_target) {
        simulatedcolorboardspectra.emplace(UUID, NULL);
    }
 
    for (uint ID = 0; ID < radiation_sources.size(); ID++) {
        RadiationModel::setSourceSpectrumIntegral(ID, 1);
    }
 
    std::vector<float> wavelengths;
    context->getGlobalData("wavelengths", wavelengths);
    int numberwavelengths = wavelengths.size();
 
    for (int iw = 0; iw < numberwavelengths; iw++) {
        std::string wavelengthlabel = std::to_string(wavelengths.at(iw));
 
        std::vector<std::string> sourcelabels;
        for (std::string sourcelabel_raw: sourcelabels_raw) {
            std::vector<vec2> icalsource;
            icalsource.push_back(cameracalibration->processedspectra.at("source").at(sourcelabel_raw).at(iw));
            icalsource.push_back(cameracalibration->processedspectra.at("source").at(sourcelabel_raw).at(iw));
            icalsource.at(1).x += 1;
            std::string sourcelable = "Cal_source_" + sourcelabel_raw;
            sourcelabels.push_back(sourcelable);
            context->setGlobalData(sourcelable.c_str(), icalsource);
        }
 
        std::vector<vec2> icalcamera(2);
        icalcamera.at(0).y = 1;
        icalcamera.at(1).y = 1;
        icalcamera.at(0).x = wavelengths.at(iw);
        icalcamera.at(1).x = wavelengths.at(iw) + 1;
        std::string camlable = "Cal_cameraresponse";
        context->setGlobalData(camlable.c_str(), icalcamera);
 
        for (auto objectpair: cameracalibration->processedspectra.at("object")) {
            std::vector<vec2> spectrum_obj;
            spectrum_obj.push_back(objectpair.second.at(iw));
            spectrum_obj.push_back(objectpair.second.at(iw));
            spectrum_obj.at(1).x += 1;
            context->setGlobalData(objectpair.first.c_str(), spectrum_obj);
        }
 
        RadiationModel::addRadiationBand(wavelengthlabel, std::stof(wavelengthlabel), std::stof(wavelengthlabel) + 1);
        RadiationModel::disableEmission(wavelengthlabel);
 
        uint ID = 0;
        for (std::string sourcelabel_raw: sourcelabels_raw) {
            RadiationModel::setSourceSpectrum(ID, sourcelabels.at(ID).c_str());
            RadiationModel::setSourceFlux(ID, wavelengthlabel, 1);
            ID++;
        }
        RadiationModel::setScatteringDepth(wavelengthlabel, 1);
        RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationFlux(wavelengthlabel, 0);
        RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationExtinctionCoeff(wavelengthlabel, 0.f, make_vec3(-0.5, 0.5, 1));
 
        RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera(cameralabel, {wavelengthlabel}, calibratecamera.position, calibratecamera.lookat, cameraproperties, 10);
        RadiationModel::setCameraSpectralResponse(cameralabel, wavelengthlabel, camlable);
        RadiationModel::updateGeometry();
        RadiationModel::runBand({wavelengthlabel});
 
        std::vector<float> camera_data;
        std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_" + wavelengthlabel;
        context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_data);
 
        std::vector<uint> pixel_labels;
        std::string global_data_label_UUID = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
        context->getGlobalData(global_data_label_UUID.c_str(), pixel_labels);
 
        for (uint j = 0; j < calibratecamera.resolution.y; j++) {
            for (uint i = 0; i < calibratecamera.resolution.x; i++) {
                float icdata = camera_data.at(j * calibratecamera.resolution.x + i);
 
                uint UUID = pixel_labels.at(j * calibratecamera.resolution.x + i) - 1;
                if (find(UUIDs_target.begin(), UUIDs_target.end(), UUID) != UUIDs_target.end()) {
                    if (simulatedcolorboardspectra.at(UUID).empty()) {
                        simulatedcolorboardspectra.at(UUID).push_back(make_vec2(wavelengths.at(iw), icdata / float(numberwavelengths)));
                    } else if (simulatedcolorboardspectra.at(UUID).back().x == wavelengths.at(iw)) {
                        simulatedcolorboardspectra.at(UUID).back().y += icdata / float(numberwavelengths);
                    } else if (simulatedcolorboardspectra.at(UUID).back().x != wavelengths.at(iw)) {
                        simulatedcolorboardspectra.at(UUID).push_back(make_vec2(wavelengths.at(iw), icdata / float(numberwavelengths)));
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
    // Update camera response spectra
    cameracalibration->updateCameraResponseSpectra(cameraresponselabels, calibratedmark, simulatedcolorboardspectra, truevalues);
    // Reset color board spectra
    std::vector<uint> UUIDs_colorbd = cameracalibration->getAllColorBoardUUIDs();
    for (uint UUID: UUIDs_colorbd) {
        std::string colorboardspectra;
        context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, "reflectivity_spectrum", colorboardspectra);
        context->setPrimitiveData(UUID, "reflectivity_spectrum", colorboardspectra + "_raw");
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::runRadiationImaging(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &sourcelabels, const std::vector<std::string> &bandlabels, const std::vector<std::string> &cameraresponselabels, helios::vec2 wavelengthrange,
                                         float fluxscale, float diffusefactor, uint scatteringdepth) {
 
    float sources_fluxsum = 0;
    std::vector<float> sources_fluxes;
    for (uint ID = 0; ID < sourcelabels.size(); ID++) {
        std::vector<vec2> Source_spectrum = loadSpectralData(sourcelabels.at(ID).c_str());
        sources_fluxes.push_back(RadiationModel::integrateSpectrum(Source_spectrum, wavelengthrange.x, wavelengthrange.y));
        RadiationModel::setSourceSpectrum(ID, sourcelabels.at(ID).c_str());
        RadiationModel::setSourceSpectrumIntegral(ID, sources_fluxes.at(ID));
        sources_fluxsum += sources_fluxes.at(ID);
    }
 
    RadiationModel::addRadiationBand(bandlabels.at(0), wavelengthrange.x, wavelengthrange.y);
    RadiationModel::disableEmission(bandlabels.at(0));
    for (uint ID = 0; ID < radiation_sources.size(); ID++) {
        RadiationModel::setSourceFlux(ID, bandlabels.at(0), (1 - diffusefactor) * sources_fluxes.at(ID) * fluxscale);
    }
    RadiationModel::setScatteringDepth(bandlabels.at(0), scatteringdepth);
    RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationFlux(bandlabels.at(0), diffusefactor * sources_fluxsum);
    RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationExtinctionCoeff(bandlabels.at(0), 1.f, make_vec3(-0.5, 0.5, 1));
 
    if (bandlabels.size() > 1) {
        for (int iband = 1; iband < bandlabels.size(); iband++) {
            RadiationModel::copyRadiationBand(bandlabels.at(iband - 1), bandlabels.at(iband), wavelengthrange.x, wavelengthrange.y);
            for (uint ID = 0; ID < radiation_sources.size(); ID++) {
                RadiationModel::setSourceFlux(ID, bandlabels.at(iband), (1 - diffusefactor) * sources_fluxes.at(ID) * fluxscale);
            }
            RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationFlux(bandlabels.at(iband), diffusefactor * sources_fluxsum);
        }
    }
 
    for (int iband = 0; iband < bandlabels.size(); iband++) {
        RadiationModel::setCameraSpectralResponse(cameralabel, bandlabels.at(iband), cameraresponselabels.at(iband));
    }
 
    RadiationModel::updateGeometry();
    RadiationModel::runBand(bandlabels);
}
 
void RadiationModel::runRadiationImaging(const std::vector<std::string> &cameralabels, const std::vector<std::string> &sourcelabels, const std::vector<std::string> &bandlabels, const std::vector<std::string> &cameraresponselabels,
                                         helios::vec2 wavelengthrange, float fluxscale, float diffusefactor, uint scatteringdepth) {
 
    float sources_fluxsum = 0;
    std::vector<float> sources_fluxes;
    for (uint ID = 0; ID < sourcelabels.size(); ID++) {
        std::vector<vec2> Source_spectrum = loadSpectralData(sourcelabels.at(ID).c_str());
        sources_fluxes.push_back(RadiationModel::integrateSpectrum(Source_spectrum, wavelengthrange.x, wavelengthrange.y));
        RadiationModel::setSourceSpectrum(ID, sourcelabels.at(ID).c_str());
        RadiationModel::setSourceSpectrumIntegral(ID, sources_fluxes.at(ID));
        sources_fluxsum += sources_fluxes.at(ID);
    }
 
    RadiationModel::addRadiationBand(bandlabels.at(0), wavelengthrange.x, wavelengthrange.y);
    RadiationModel::disableEmission(bandlabels.at(0));
    for (uint ID = 0; ID < radiation_sources.size(); ID++) {
        RadiationModel::setSourceFlux(ID, bandlabels.at(0), (1 - diffusefactor) * sources_fluxes.at(ID) * fluxscale);
    }
    RadiationModel::setScatteringDepth(bandlabels.at(0), scatteringdepth);
    RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationFlux(bandlabels.at(0), diffusefactor * sources_fluxsum);
    RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationExtinctionCoeff(bandlabels.at(0), 1.f, make_vec3(-0.5, 0.5, 1));
 
    if (bandlabels.size() > 1) {
        for (int iband = 1; iband < bandlabels.size(); iband++) {
            RadiationModel::copyRadiationBand(bandlabels.at(iband - 1), bandlabels.at(iband), wavelengthrange.x, wavelengthrange.y);
            for (uint ID = 0; ID < radiation_sources.size(); ID++) {
                RadiationModel::setSourceFlux(ID, bandlabels.at(iband), (1 - diffusefactor) * sources_fluxes.at(ID) * fluxscale);
            }
            RadiationModel::setDiffuseRadiationFlux(bandlabels.at(iband), diffusefactor * sources_fluxsum);
        }
    }
 
    for (int ic = 0; ic < cameralabels.size(); ic++) {
        for (int iband = 0; iband < bandlabels.size(); iband++) {
            RadiationModel::setCameraSpectralResponse(cameralabels.at(ic), bandlabels.at(iband), cameraresponselabels.at(iband));
        }
    }
 
 
    RadiationModel::updateGeometry();
    RadiationModel::runBand(bandlabels);
}
 
float RadiationModel::getCameraResponseScale(const std::string &orginalcameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &cameraresponselabels, const std::vector<std::string> &bandlabels, const std::vector<std::string> &sourcelabels, vec2 &wavelengthrange,
                                             const std::vector<std::vector<float>> &truevalues) {
 
 
    RadiationCamera calibratecamera = cameras.at(orginalcameralabel);
    CameraProperties cameraproperties;
    cameraproperties.HFOV = calibratecamera.HFOV_degrees;
    cameraproperties.camera_resolution = calibratecamera.resolution;
    cameraproperties.focal_plane_distance = calibratecamera.focal_length; // Working distance for ray generation
    cameraproperties.lens_focal_length = calibratecamera.lens_focal_length; // Optical focal length for aperture
    cameraproperties.lens_diameter = calibratecamera.lens_diameter;
    cameraproperties.FOV_aspect_ratio = calibratecamera.FOV_aspect_ratio;
    cameraproperties.exposure = calibratecamera.exposure;
    cameraproperties.shutter_speed = calibratecamera.shutter_speed;
 
    std::string cameralabel = orginalcameralabel + "Scale";
    RadiationModel::addRadiationCamera(cameralabel, bandlabels, calibratecamera.position, calibratecamera.lookat, cameraproperties, 20);
    RadiationModel::runRadiationImaging(cameralabel, sourcelabels, bandlabels, cameraresponselabels, wavelengthrange, 1, 0);
 
    // Get camera spectral response scale based on comparing true values and calibrated image
    float camerascale = cameracalibration->getCameraResponseScale(cameralabel, cameraproperties.camera_resolution, bandlabels, truevalues);
    return camerascale;
}
 
 
void RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &primitive_data_label, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame, float padvalue) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Get image UUID labels
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".txt";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".txt";
    }
 
    // Output label image in ".txt" format
    std::ofstream pixel_data(outfile.str());
 
    if (!pixel_data.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap): Could not open file '" + outfile.str() + "' for writing.");
    }
 
    bool empty_flag = true;
    // Apply horizontal flip to match mask coordinate system
    for (uint j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (uint i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1; // horizontal flip
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
            if (context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID) && context->doesPrimitiveDataExist(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str())) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getPrimitiveDataType(primitive_data_label.c_str());
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                    float labeldata;
                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                    uint labeldata;
                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                    int labeldata;
                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_DOUBLE) {
                    double labeldata;
                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else {
                    pixel_data << padvalue << " ";
                }
            } else {
                pixel_data << padvalue << " ";
            }
        }
        pixel_data << "\n";
    }
    pixel_data.close();
 
    if (empty_flag) {
        std::cerr << "WARNING (RadiationModel::writePrimitiveDataLabelMap): No primitive data of " << primitive_data_label << " found in camera image. Primitive data map contains only padded values." << std::endl;
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &object_data_label, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame, float padvalue) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Get image UUID labels
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".txt";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".txt";
    }
 
    // Output label image in ".txt" format
    std::ofstream pixel_data(outfile.str());
 
    if (!pixel_data.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap): Could not open file '" + outfile.str() + "' for writing.");
    }
 
    bool empty_flag = true;
    // Apply horizontal flip to match mask coordinate system
    for (uint j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (uint i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1; // horizontal flip
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
            if (!context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                pixel_data << padvalue << " ";
                continue;
            }
            uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
            if (context->doesObjectExist(objID) && context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, object_data_label.c_str())) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType(object_data_label.c_str());
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                    float labeldata;
                    context->getObjectData(objID, object_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                    uint labeldata;
                    context->getObjectData(objID, object_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                    int labeldata;
                    context->getObjectData(objID, object_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_DOUBLE) {
                    double labeldata;
                    context->getObjectData(objID, object_data_label.c_str(), labeldata);
                    pixel_data << labeldata << " ";
                    empty_flag = false;
                } else {
                    pixel_data << padvalue << " ";
                }
            } else {
                pixel_data << padvalue << " ";
            }
        }
        pixel_data << "\n";
    }
    pixel_data.close();
 
    if (empty_flag) {
        std::cerr << "WARNING (RadiationModel::writeObjectDataLabelMap): No object data of " << object_data_label << " found in camera image. Object data map contains only padded values." << std::endl;
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeDepthImageData(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageData): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_depth";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageData): Depth data for camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist. Was the radiation model run for the camera?");
    }
    std::vector<float> camera_depth;
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_depth);
    helios::vec3 camera_position = cameras.at(cameralabel).position;
    helios::vec3 camera_lookat = cameras.at(cameralabel).lookat;
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageData): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeDepthImageData): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".txt";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".txt";
    }
 
    // Output label image in ".txt" format
    std::ofstream pixel_data(outfile.str());
 
    if (!pixel_data.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageData): Could not open file '" + outfile.str() + "' for writing.");
    }
 
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = camera_resolution.x - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            pixel_data << camera_depth.at(j * camera_resolution.x + i) << " ";
        }
        pixel_data << "\n";
    }
 
    pixel_data.close();
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeDepthImageDataEXR(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageDataEXR): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_depth";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageDataEXR): Depth data for camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist. Was the radiation model run for the camera?");
    }
    std::vector<float> camera_depth;
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_depth);
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageDataEXR): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeDepthImageDataEXR): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame << ".exr";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".exr";
    }
 
    // Apply horizontal flip to match writeDepthImageData() convention
    std::vector<float> flipped_data(camera_resolution.x * camera_resolution.y);
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            int ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
            flipped_data[j * camera_resolution.x + i] = camera_depth[j * camera_resolution.x + ii];
        }
    }
 
    helios::writeEXR(outfile.str(), camera_resolution.x, camera_resolution.y, flipped_data);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeNormDepthImage(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &imagefile_base, float max_depth, const std::string &image_path, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeNormDepthImage): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_depth";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeNormDepthImage): Depth data for camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist. Was the radiation model run for the camera?");
    }
    std::vector<float> camera_depth;
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_depth);
    helios::vec3 camera_position = cameras.at(cameralabel).position;
    helios::vec3 camera_lookat = cameras.at(cameralabel).lookat;
 
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeNormDepthImage): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeNormDepthImage): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".jpeg";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".jpeg";
    }
 
    float min_depth = 99999;
    for (int i = 0; i < camera_depth.size(); i++) {
        if (camera_depth.at(i) < 0 || camera_depth.at(i) > max_depth) {
            camera_depth.at(i) = max_depth;
        }
        if (camera_depth.at(i) < min_depth) {
            min_depth = camera_depth.at(i);
        }
    }
    for (int i = 0; i < camera_depth.size(); i++) {
        camera_depth.at(i) = 1.f - (camera_depth.at(i) - min_depth) / (max_depth - min_depth);
    }
 
    std::vector<RGBcolor> pixel_data(camera_resolution.x * camera_resolution.y);
 
    RGBcolor pixel_color;
    for (uint j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (uint i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
 
            float c = camera_depth.at(j * camera_resolution.x + i);
            pixel_color = make_RGBcolor(c, c, c);
 
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
            uint jj = camera_resolution.y - j - 1;
            pixel_data.at(jj * camera_resolution.x + ii) = pixel_color;
        }
    }
 
    writeJPEG(outfile.str(), camera_resolution.x, camera_resolution.y, pixel_data);
}
 
// DEPRECATED
void RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &primitive_data_label, uint object_class_ID, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, bool append_label_file, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Get image UUID labels
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".txt";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".txt";
    }
 
    // Output label image in ".txt" format
    std::ofstream label_file;
    if (append_label_file) {
        label_file.open(outfile.str(), std::ios::out | std::ios::app);
    } else {
        label_file.open(outfile.str());
    }
 
    if (!label_file.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Could not open file '" + outfile.str() + "'.");
    }
 
    std::map<int, vec4> pdata_bounds;
 
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + i) - 1;
            if (context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID) && context->doesPrimitiveDataExist(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str())) {
 
                uint labeldata;
 
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getPrimitiveDataType(primitive_data_label.c_str());
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                    uint labeldata_ui;
                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str(), labeldata_ui);
                    labeldata = labeldata_ui;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                    int labeldata_i;
                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, primitive_data_label.c_str(), labeldata_i);
                    labeldata = (uint) labeldata_i;
                } else {
                    continue;
                }
 
                if (pdata_bounds.find(labeldata) == pdata_bounds.end()) {
                    pdata_bounds[labeldata] = make_vec4(1e6, -1, 1e6, -1);
                }
 
                if (i < pdata_bounds[labeldata].x) {
                    pdata_bounds[labeldata].x = i;
                }
                if (i > pdata_bounds[labeldata].y) {
                    pdata_bounds[labeldata].y = i;
                }
                if (j < pdata_bounds[labeldata].z) {
                    pdata_bounds[labeldata].z = j;
                }
                if (j > pdata_bounds[labeldata].w) {
                    pdata_bounds[labeldata].w = j;
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    for (auto box: pdata_bounds) {
        vec4 bbox = box.second;
        if (bbox.x == bbox.y || bbox.z == bbox.w) { // filter boxes of zeros size
            continue;
        }
        label_file << object_class_ID << " " << (bbox.x + 0.5 * (bbox.y - bbox.x)) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.z + 0.5 * (bbox.w - bbox.z)) / float(camera_resolution.y) << " " << std::setprecision(6) << std::fixed
                   << (bbox.y - bbox.x) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.w - bbox.z) / float(camera_resolution.y) << std::endl;
    }
 
    label_file.close();
}
 
// DEPRECATED
void RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &object_data_label, uint object_class_ID, const std::string &imagefile_base, const std::string &image_path, bool append_label_file, int frame) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Get image UUID labels
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string frame_str;
    if (frame >= 0) {
        frame_str = std::to_string(frame);
    }
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::ostringstream outfile;
    outfile << output_path;
 
    if (frame >= 0) {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << "_" << std::setw(5) << std::setfill('0') << frame_str << ".txt";
    } else {
        outfile << cameralabel << "_" << imagefile_base << ".txt";
    }
 
    // Output label image in ".txt" format
    std::ofstream label_file;
    if (append_label_file) {
        label_file.open(outfile.str(), std::ios::out | std::ios::app);
    } else {
        label_file.open(outfile.str());
    }
 
    if (!label_file.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Could not open file '" + outfile.str() + "'.");
    }
 
    std::map<int, vec4> pdata_bounds;
 
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
 
            if (!context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                continue;
            }
 
            uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
 
            if (!context->doesObjectExist(objID) || !context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, object_data_label.c_str())) {
                continue;
            }
 
            uint labeldata;
 
            HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType(object_data_label.c_str());
            if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                uint labeldata_ui;
                context->getObjectData(objID, object_data_label.c_str(), labeldata_ui);
                labeldata = labeldata_ui;
            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                int labeldata_i;
                context->getObjectData(objID, object_data_label.c_str(), labeldata_i);
                labeldata = (uint) labeldata_i;
            } else {
                continue;
            }
 
            if (pdata_bounds.find(labeldata) == pdata_bounds.end()) {
                pdata_bounds[labeldata] = make_vec4(1e6, -1, 1e6, -1);
            }
 
            if (i < pdata_bounds[labeldata].x) {
                pdata_bounds[labeldata].x = i;
            }
            if (i > pdata_bounds[labeldata].y) {
                pdata_bounds[labeldata].y = i;
            }
            if (j < pdata_bounds[labeldata].z) {
                pdata_bounds[labeldata].z = j;
            }
            if (j > pdata_bounds[labeldata].w) {
                pdata_bounds[labeldata].w = j;
            }
        }
    }
 
    for (auto box: pdata_bounds) {
        vec4 bbox = box.second;
        if (bbox.x == bbox.y || bbox.z == bbox.w) { // filter boxes of zeros size
            continue;
        }
        label_file << object_class_ID << " " << (bbox.x + 0.5 * (bbox.y - bbox.x)) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.z + 0.5 * (bbox.w - bbox.z)) / float(camera_resolution.y) << " " << std::setprecision(6) << std::fixed
                   << (bbox.y - bbox.x) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.w - bbox.z) / float(camera_resolution.y) << std::endl;
    }
 
    label_file.close();
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &primitive_data_label, const uint &object_class_ID, const std::string &image_file, const std::string &classes_txt_file, const std::string &image_path) {
    writeImageBoundingBoxes(cameralabel, std::vector<std::string>{primitive_data_label}, std::vector<uint>{object_class_ID}, image_file, classes_txt_file, image_path);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &primitive_data_label, const std::vector<uint> &object_class_ID, const std::string &image_file, const std::string &classes_txt_file,
                                             const std::string &image_path) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    if (primitive_data_label.size() != object_class_ID.size()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): The lengths of primitive_data_label and object_class_ID vectors must be the same.");
    }
 
    // Get image UUID labels
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::string outfile_txt = output_path + std::filesystem::path(image_file).stem().string() + ".txt";
 
    std::ofstream label_file(outfile_txt);
 
    if (!label_file.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Could not open output bounding box file '" + outfile_txt + "'.");
    }
 
    // Map to store bounding boxes for each data label class combination
    std::map<std::pair<uint, uint>, vec4> pdata_bounds; // (class_id, label_value) -> bbox
 
    // Iterate through all pixels
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1;
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
 
            if (context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                // Check each primitive data label
                for (size_t label_idx = 0; label_idx < primitive_data_label.size(); label_idx++) {
                    const std::string &data_label = primitive_data_label[label_idx];
                    uint class_id = object_class_ID[label_idx];
 
                    if (context->doesPrimitiveDataExist(UUID, data_label.c_str())) {
                        uint labeldata;
                        bool has_data = false;
 
                        HeliosDataType datatype = context->getPrimitiveDataType(data_label.c_str());
                        if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                            uint labeldata_ui;
                            context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_ui);
                            labeldata = labeldata_ui;
                            has_data = true;
                        } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                            int labeldata_i;
                            context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_i);
                            labeldata = (uint) labeldata_i;
                            has_data = true;
                        }
 
                        if (has_data) {
                            std::pair<uint, uint> key = std::make_pair(class_id, labeldata);
 
                            if (pdata_bounds.find(key) == pdata_bounds.end()) {
                                pdata_bounds[key] = make_vec4(1e6, -1, 1e6, -1);
                            }
 
                            if (i < pdata_bounds[key].x) {
                                pdata_bounds[key].x = i;
                            }
                            if (i > pdata_bounds[key].y) {
                                pdata_bounds[key].y = i;
                            }
                            if (j < pdata_bounds[key].z) {
                                pdata_bounds[key].z = j;
                            }
                            if (j > pdata_bounds[key].w) {
                                pdata_bounds[key].w = j;
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    for (auto box: pdata_bounds) {
        uint class_id = box.first.first;
        vec4 bbox = box.second;
        if (bbox.x == bbox.y || bbox.z == bbox.w) { // filter boxes of zero size
            continue;
        }
        label_file << class_id << " " << (bbox.x + 0.5 * (bbox.y - bbox.x)) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.z + 0.5 * (bbox.w - bbox.z)) / float(camera_resolution.y) << " " << std::setprecision(6) << std::fixed
                   << (bbox.y - bbox.x) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.w - bbox.z) / float(camera_resolution.y) << std::endl;
    }
 
    label_file.close();
 
    std::ofstream classes_txt_stream(output_path + classes_txt_file);
    if (!classes_txt_stream.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes): Could not open output classes file '" + output_path + classes_txt_file + ".");
    }
    for (int i = 0; i < object_class_ID.size(); i++) {
        classes_txt_stream << object_class_ID.at(i) << " " << primitive_data_label.at(i) << std::endl;
    }
    classes_txt_stream.close();
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &object_data_label, const uint &object_class_ID, const std::string &image_file, const std::string &classes_txt_file,
                                                        const std::string &image_path) {
    writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData(cameralabel, std::vector<std::string>{object_data_label}, std::vector<uint>{object_class_ID}, image_file, classes_txt_file, image_path);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &object_data_label, const std::vector<uint> &object_class_ID, const std::string &image_file, const std::string &classes_txt_file,
                                                        const std::string &image_path) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    if (object_data_label.size() != object_class_ID.size()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): The lengths of object_data_label and object_class_ID vectors must be the same.");
    }
 
    // Get image UUID labels
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::string output_path = image_path;
    if (!image_path.empty() && !validateOutputPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Invalid image output directory '" + image_path + "'. Check that the path exists and that you have write permission.");
    } else if (!isDirectoryPath(output_path)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR(RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Expected a directory path but got a file path for argument 'image_path'.");
    }
 
    std::string outfile_txt = output_path + std::filesystem::path(image_file).stem().string() + ".txt";
 
    std::ofstream label_file(outfile_txt);
 
    if (!label_file.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Could not open output bounding box file '" + outfile_txt + "'.");
    }
 
    // Map to store bounding boxes for each data label class combination
    std::map<std::pair<uint, uint>, vec4> pdata_bounds; // (class_id, label_value) -> bbox
 
    // Iterate through all pixels
    // Apply horizontal flip to match mask coordinate system
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1; // horizontal flip
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
 
            if (!context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                continue;
            }
 
            uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
 
            if (!context->doesObjectExist(objID)) {
                continue;
            }
 
            // Check each object data label
            for (size_t label_idx = 0; label_idx < object_data_label.size(); label_idx++) {
                const std::string &data_label = object_data_label[label_idx];
                uint class_id = object_class_ID[label_idx];
 
                if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, data_label.c_str())) {
                    uint labeldata;
                    bool has_data = false;
 
                    HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType(data_label.c_str());
                    if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                        uint labeldata_ui;
                        context->getObjectData(objID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_ui);
                        labeldata = labeldata_ui;
                        has_data = true;
                    } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                        int labeldata_i;
                        context->getObjectData(objID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_i);
                        labeldata = (uint) labeldata_i;
                        has_data = true;
                    }
 
                    if (has_data) {
                        std::pair<uint, uint> key = std::make_pair(class_id, labeldata);
 
                        if (pdata_bounds.find(key) == pdata_bounds.end()) {
                            pdata_bounds[key] = make_vec4(1e6, -1, 1e6, -1);
                        }
 
                        if (i < pdata_bounds[key].x) {
                            pdata_bounds[key].x = i;
                        }
                        if (i > pdata_bounds[key].y) {
                            pdata_bounds[key].y = i;
                        }
                        if (j < pdata_bounds[key].z) {
                            pdata_bounds[key].z = j;
                        }
                        if (j > pdata_bounds[key].w) {
                            pdata_bounds[key].w = j;
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    for (auto box: pdata_bounds) {
        uint class_id = box.first.first;
        vec4 bbox = box.second;
        if (bbox.x == bbox.y || bbox.z == bbox.w) { // filter boxes of zero size
            continue;
        }
        label_file << class_id << " " << (bbox.x + 0.5 * (bbox.y - bbox.x)) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.z + 0.5 * (bbox.w - bbox.z)) / float(camera_resolution.y) << " " << std::setprecision(6) << std::fixed
                   << (bbox.y - bbox.x) / float(camera_resolution.x) << " " << (bbox.w - bbox.z) / float(camera_resolution.y) << std::endl;
    }
 
    label_file.close();
 
    std::ofstream classes_txt_stream(output_path + classes_txt_file);
    if (!classes_txt_stream.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageBoundingBoxes_ObjectData): Could not open output classes file '" + output_path + classes_txt_file + ".");
    }
    for (int i = 0; i < object_class_ID.size(); i++) {
        classes_txt_stream << object_class_ID.at(i) << " " << object_data_label.at(i) << std::endl;
    }
    classes_txt_stream.close();
}
 
// Helper function to initialize or load existing COCO JSON structure and get image ID
std::pair<nlohmann::json, int> RadiationModel::initializeCOCOJsonWithImageId(const std::string &filename, bool append_file, const std::string &cameralabel, const helios::int2 &camera_resolution, const std::string &image_file) {
    nlohmann::json coco_json;
    int image_id = 0;
 
    if (append_file) {
        std::ifstream existing_file(filename);
        if (existing_file.is_open()) {
            try {
                existing_file >> coco_json;
            } catch (const std::exception &e) {
                coco_json.clear();
            }
            existing_file.close();
        }
    }
 
    // Initialize JSON structure if empty
    if (coco_json.empty()) {
        coco_json["categories"] = nlohmann::json::array();
        coco_json["images"] = nlohmann::json::array();
        coco_json["annotations"] = nlohmann::json::array();
    }
 
    // Extract just the filename (no path) from the image file
    std::filesystem::path image_path_obj(image_file);
    std::string filename_only = image_path_obj.filename().string();
 
    // Check if this image already exists in the JSON
    bool image_exists = false;
    for (const auto &img: coco_json["images"]) {
        if (img["file_name"] == filename_only) {
            image_id = img["id"];
            image_exists = true;
            break;
        }
    }
 
    // If image doesn't exist, add it with a new unique ID
    if (!image_exists) {
        // Find the next available image ID
        int max_image_id = -1;
        for (const auto &img: coco_json["images"]) {
            if (img["id"] > max_image_id) {
                max_image_id = img["id"];
            }
        }
        image_id = max_image_id + 1;
 
        // Add the new image entry
        nlohmann::json image_entry;
        image_entry["id"] = image_id;
        image_entry["file_name"] = filename_only;
        image_entry["height"] = camera_resolution.y;
        image_entry["width"] = camera_resolution.x;
        coco_json["images"].push_back(image_entry);
    }
 
    return std::make_pair(coco_json, image_id);
}
 
// Helper function to initialize or load existing COCO JSON structure (backward compatibility)
nlohmann::json RadiationModel::initializeCOCOJson(const std::string &filename, bool append_file, const std::string &cameralabel, const helios::int2 &camera_resolution, const std::string &image_file) {
    return initializeCOCOJsonWithImageId(filename, append_file, cameralabel, camera_resolution, image_file).first;
}
 
// Helper function to add category to COCO JSON if it doesn't exist
void RadiationModel::addCategoryToCOCO(nlohmann::json &coco_json, const std::vector<uint> &object_class_ID, const std::vector<std::string> &category_name) {
    if (object_class_ID.size() != category_name.size()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::addCategoryToCOCO): The lengths of object_class_ID and category_name vectors must be the same.");
    }
 
    for (size_t i = 0; i < object_class_ID.size(); ++i) {
        bool category_exists = false;
        for (auto &cat: coco_json["categories"]) {
            if (cat["id"] == object_class_ID[i]) {
                category_exists = true;
                break;
            }
        }
        if (!category_exists) {
            nlohmann::json category;
            category["id"] = object_class_ID[i];
            category["name"] = category_name[i];
            category["supercategory"] = "none";
            coco_json["categories"].push_back(category);
        }
    }
}
 
// Helper function to write COCO JSON with proper formatting
void RadiationModel::writeCOCOJson(const nlohmann::json &coco_json, const std::string &filename) {
    std::ofstream json_file(filename);
    if (!json_file.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel): Could not open file '" + filename + "'.");
    }
 
    // Use standard JSON formatting for now (can optimize array formatting later)
    json_file << coco_json.dump(2) << std::endl;
    json_file.close();
}
 
// Helper function to generate label masks from either primitive or object data
std::map<int, std::vector<std::vector<bool>>> RadiationModel::generateLabelMasks(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &data_label, bool use_object_data) {
    std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    context->getGlobalData(global_data_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs = camera_UUIDs;
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
 
    std::map<int, std::vector<std::vector<bool>>> label_masks;
 
    // First pass: identify all unique labels and create binary masks
    // Apply horizontal flip to match JPEG coordinate system
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            uint ii = camera_resolution.x - i - 1; // horizontal flip to match JPEG
            uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
 
            if (context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                uint labeldata;
                bool has_data = false;
 
                if (use_object_data) {
                    // Object data version
                    uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
                    if (objID != 0 && context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, data_label.c_str())) {
                        HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType(data_label.c_str());
                        if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                            uint labeldata_ui;
                            context->getObjectData(objID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_ui);
                            labeldata = labeldata_ui;
                            has_data = true;
                        } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                            int labeldata_i;
                            context->getObjectData(objID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_i);
                            labeldata = (uint) labeldata_i;
                            has_data = true;
                        }
                    }
                } else {
                    // Primitive data version
                    if (context->doesPrimitiveDataExist(UUID, data_label.c_str())) {
                        HeliosDataType datatype = context->getPrimitiveDataType(data_label.c_str());
                        if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                            uint labeldata_ui;
                            context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_ui);
                            labeldata = labeldata_ui;
                            has_data = true;
                        } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                            int labeldata_i;
                            context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, data_label.c_str(), labeldata_i);
                            labeldata = (uint) labeldata_i;
                            has_data = true;
                        }
                    }
                }
 
                if (has_data) {
                    // Initialize mask for this label if not exists
                    if (label_masks.find(labeldata) == label_masks.end()) {
                        label_masks[labeldata] = std::vector<std::vector<bool>>(camera_resolution.y, std::vector<bool>(camera_resolution.x, false));
                    }
                    label_masks[labeldata][j][i] = true;
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    return label_masks;
}
 
// Helper function to find starting boundary pixel (topmost-leftmost)
std::pair<int, int> RadiationModel::findStartingBoundaryPixel(const std::vector<std::vector<bool>> &mask, const helios::int2 &camera_resolution) {
    for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
        for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
            if (mask[j][i]) {
                // Check if this pixel is on the boundary
                for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                    for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                        if (di == 0 && dj == 0)
                            continue;
                        int ni = i + di;
                        int nj = j + dj;
                        if (ni < 0 || ni >= camera_resolution.x || nj < 0 || nj >= camera_resolution.y || !mask[nj][ni]) {
                            return {i, j}; // Found boundary pixel
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
    return {-1, -1}; // No boundary found
}
 
// Helper function to trace boundary using Moore neighborhood algorithm
std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> RadiationModel::traceBoundaryMoore(const std::vector<std::vector<bool>> &mask, int start_x, int start_y, const helios::int2 &camera_resolution) {
    std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> contour;
 
    // 8-connected neighbors in clockwise order starting from East
    int dx[] = {1, 1, 0, -1, -1, -1, 0, 1};
    int dy[] = {0, 1, 1, 1, 0, -1, -1, -1};
 
    int x = start_x, y = start_y;
    int dir = 6; // Start looking West (opposite of East)
 
    do {
        contour.push_back({x, y});
 
        // Look for next boundary pixel
        int start_dir = (dir + 6) % 8; // Start looking 3 positions counter-clockwise from where we came
        bool found = false;
 
        for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
            int check_dir = (start_dir + i) % 8;
            int nx = x + dx[check_dir];
            int ny = y + dy[check_dir];
 
            // Check if this neighbor is inside bounds and inside the mask
            if (nx >= 0 && nx < camera_resolution.x && ny >= 0 && ny < camera_resolution.y && mask[ny][nx]) {
                x = nx;
                y = ny;
                dir = check_dir;
                found = true;
                break;
            }
        }
 
        if (!found)
            break; // No next boundary pixel found
 
    } while (!(x == start_x && y == start_y) && contour.size() < camera_resolution.x * camera_resolution.y);
 
    return contour;
}
 
// Helper function to trace boundary using simple connected components
std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> RadiationModel::traceBoundarySimple(const std::vector<std::vector<bool>> &mask, int start_x, int start_y, const helios::int2 &camera_resolution) {
    std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> contour;
    std::set<std::pair<int, int>> visited_boundary;
 
    // Use a simple approach: walk along the boundary
    std::queue<std::pair<int, int>> boundary_queue;
    boundary_queue.push({start_x, start_y});
    visited_boundary.insert({start_x, start_y});
 
    while (!boundary_queue.empty()) {
        auto [x, y] = boundary_queue.front();
        boundary_queue.pop();
        contour.push_back({x, y});
 
        // 8-connected neighbors
        for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
            for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                if (di == 0 && dj == 0)
                    continue;
                int nx = x + di;
                int ny = y + dj;
 
                if (nx >= 0 && nx < camera_resolution.x && ny >= 0 && ny < camera_resolution.y && mask[ny][nx] && visited_boundary.find({nx, ny}) == visited_boundary.end()) {
 
                    // Check if this pixel is on the boundary
                    bool is_boundary = false;
                    for (int ddi = -1; ddi <= 1; ddi++) {
                        for (int ddj = -1; ddj <= 1; ddj++) {
                            if (ddi == 0 && ddj == 0)
                                continue;
                            int nnx = nx + ddi;
                            int nny = ny + ddj;
                            if (nnx < 0 || nnx >= camera_resolution.x || nny < 0 || nny >= camera_resolution.y || !mask[nny][nnx]) {
                                is_boundary = true;
                                break;
                            }
                        }
                        if (is_boundary)
                            break;
                    }
 
                    if (is_boundary) {
                        boundary_queue.push({nx, ny});
                        visited_boundary.insert({nx, ny});
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    return contour;
}
 
// Helper function to generate annotations from label masks
std::vector<std::map<std::string, std::vector<float>>> RadiationModel::generateAnnotationsFromMasks(const std::map<int, std::vector<std::vector<bool>>> &label_masks, uint object_class_ID, const helios::int2 &camera_resolution, int image_id) {
    std::vector<std::map<std::string, std::vector<float>>> annotations;
    int annotation_id = 0;
 
    for (const auto &label_pair: label_masks) {
        int label_value = label_pair.first;
        const auto &mask = label_pair.second;
 
        // Create a visited mask for connected components
        std::vector<std::vector<bool>> visited(camera_resolution.y, std::vector<bool>(camera_resolution.x, false));
 
        // Find all connected components for this label
        for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
            for (int i = 0; i < camera_resolution.x; i++) {
                if (mask[j][i] && !visited[j][i]) {
                    // Find boundary pixel for this component
                    int boundary_i = i, boundary_j = j;
                    bool is_boundary = false;
 
                    // Check if this pixel is on the boundary
                    for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                        for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                            int ni = i + di;
                            int nj = j + dj;
                            if (ni < 0 || ni >= camera_resolution.x || nj < 0 || nj >= camera_resolution.y || !mask[nj][ni]) {
                                is_boundary = true;
                                boundary_i = i;
                                boundary_j = j;
                                break;
                            }
                        }
                        if (is_boundary)
                            break;
                    }
 
                    if (is_boundary) {
                        // First, mark all pixels in this connected component using flood fill
                        std::stack<std::pair<int, int>> stack;
                        std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> component_pixels;
                        stack.push({i, j});
                        visited[j][i] = true;
 
                        int min_x = i, max_x = i, min_y = j, max_y = j;
                        int area = 0;
 
                        while (!stack.empty()) {
                            auto [ci, cj] = stack.top();
                            stack.pop();
                            area++;
                            component_pixels.push_back({ci, cj});
 
                            min_x = std::min(min_x, ci);
                            max_x = std::max(max_x, ci);
                            min_y = std::min(min_y, cj);
                            max_y = std::max(max_y, cj);
 
                            // Check 4-connected neighbors
                            for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                                for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                                    if (abs(di) + abs(dj) != 1)
                                        continue; // Only 4-connected
                                    int ni = ci + di;
                                    int nj = cj + dj;
                                    if (ni >= 0 && ni < camera_resolution.x && nj >= 0 && nj < camera_resolution.y && mask[nj][ni] && !visited[nj][ni]) {
                                        stack.push({ni, nj});
                                        visited[nj][ni] = true;
                                    }
                                }
                            }
                        }
 
                        // Now trace the boundary of this component
                        auto start_pixel = findStartingBoundaryPixel(mask, camera_resolution);
                        bool is_boundary_start = false;
 
                        if (start_pixel.first >= min_x && start_pixel.first <= max_x && start_pixel.second >= min_y && start_pixel.second <= max_y) {
                            is_boundary_start = true;
                        }
 
                        if (is_boundary_start) {
                            // Try Moore neighborhood boundary tracing first
                            auto contour = traceBoundaryMoore(mask, start_pixel.first, start_pixel.second, camera_resolution);
 
                            // If Moore tracing didn't work well, fall back to simple boundary collection
                            if (contour.size() < 10) {
                                contour = traceBoundarySimple(mask, start_pixel.first, start_pixel.second, camera_resolution);
                            }
 
                            if (contour.size() >= 3) {
                                // Create annotation
                                std::map<std::string, std::vector<float>> annotation;
                                annotation["id"] = {(float) annotation_id++};
                                annotation["image_id"] = {(float) image_id};
                                annotation["category_id"] = {(float) object_class_ID};
                                annotation["bbox"] = {(float) min_x, (float) min_y, (float) (max_x - min_x), (float) (max_y - min_y)};
                                annotation["area"] = {(float) area};
                                annotation["iscrowd"] = {0.0f};
 
                                // Convert contour to segmentation format (flatten coordinates)
                                std::vector<float> segmentation;
                                for (const auto &point: contour) {
                                    segmentation.push_back((float) point.first); // x coordinate
                                    segmentation.push_back((float) point.second); // y coordinate
                                }
                                annotation["segmentation"] = segmentation;
 
                                annotations.push_back(annotation);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    return annotations;
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &primitive_data_label, const uint &object_class_ID, const std::string &json_filename, const std::string &image_file,
                                                 const std::vector<std::string> &data_attribute_labels, bool append_file) {
    writeImageSegmentationMasks(cameralabel, std::vector<std::string>{primitive_data_label}, std::vector<uint>{object_class_ID}, json_filename, image_file, data_attribute_labels, append_file);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &primitive_data_label, const std::vector<uint> &object_class_ID, const std::string &json_filename, const std::string &image_file,
                                                 const std::vector<std::string> &data_attribute_labels, bool append_file) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    if (primitive_data_label.size() != object_class_ID.size()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks): The lengths of primitive_data_label and object_class_ID vectors must be the same.");
    }
 
    // Check that camera pixel data exists
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
 
    // Check that all primitive data labels exist
    std::vector<std::string> all_primitive_data = context->listAllPrimitiveDataLabels();
    helios::WarningAggregator missing_label_warnings;
    for (const auto &data_label: primitive_data_label) {
        if (std::find(all_primitive_data.begin(), all_primitive_data.end(), data_label) == all_primitive_data.end()) {
            missing_label_warnings.addWarning("missing_primitive_data_label", "Primitive data label '" + data_label + "' does not exist in the context.");
        }
    }
    missing_label_warnings.report(std::cerr);
 
    // Check that image file exists
    if (!std::filesystem::exists(image_file)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks): Image file '" + image_file + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Validate and ensure JSON filename has .json extension
    std::string validated_json_filename = json_filename;
    if (validated_json_filename.length() < 5 || validated_json_filename.substr(validated_json_filename.length() - 5) != ".json") {
        validated_json_filename += ".json";
    }
 
    // Use the validated filename directly
    std::string outfile = validated_json_filename;
 
    // Write annotations to JSON file
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
    auto coco_json_pair = initializeCOCOJsonWithImageId(outfile, append_file, cameralabel, camera_resolution, image_file);
    nlohmann::json coco_json = coco_json_pair.first;
    int image_id = coco_json_pair.second;
    addCategoryToCOCO(coco_json, object_class_ID, primitive_data_label);
 
    // Check which data_attribute_labels exist in primitive or object data
    struct AttributeInfo {
        std::string label;
        bool is_primitive_data;
        bool exists;
    };
    std::vector<AttributeInfo> attribute_info;
 
    if (!data_attribute_labels.empty()) {
        std::vector<std::string> all_primitive_data = context->listAllPrimitiveDataLabels();
        std::vector<std::string> all_object_data = context->listAllObjectDataLabels();
 
        for (const auto &attr_label: data_attribute_labels) {
            AttributeInfo info;
            info.label = attr_label;
            info.exists = false;
 
            if (std::find(all_primitive_data.begin(), all_primitive_data.end(), attr_label) != all_primitive_data.end()) {
                info.is_primitive_data = true;
                info.exists = true;
            } else if (std::find(all_object_data.begin(), all_object_data.end(), attr_label) != all_object_data.end()) {
                info.is_primitive_data = false;
                info.exists = true;
            }
 
            if (info.exists) {
                attribute_info.push_back(info);
            }
        }
    }
 
    bool use_attributes = !attribute_info.empty();
 
    // Get pixel UUID data
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs;
    std::string pixel_UUID_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    context->getGlobalData(pixel_UUID_label.c_str(), pixel_UUIDs);
 
    // Process each data label and class ID pair
    for (size_t i = 0; i < primitive_data_label.size(); ++i) {
        // Generate label masks using helper function (primitive data version)
        std::map<int, std::vector<std::vector<bool>>> label_masks = generateLabelMasks(cameralabel, primitive_data_label[i], false);
 
        // Generate annotations from masks using helper function
        std::vector<std::map<std::string, std::vector<float>>> annotations = generateAnnotationsFromMasks(label_masks, object_class_ID[i], camera_resolution, image_id);
 
        // Calculate mean attribute values for each mask if requested
        std::vector<std::map<std::string, double>> mean_attribute_values_per_component;
        if (use_attributes) {
            // For each label mask, find connected components and calculate mean attribute values
            for (const auto &label_pair: label_masks) {
                const auto &mask = label_pair.second;
                std::vector<std::vector<bool>> visited(camera_resolution.y, std::vector<bool>(camera_resolution.x, false));
 
                for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
                    for (int i_px = 0; i_px < camera_resolution.x; i_px++) {
                        if (mask[j][i_px] && !visited[j][i_px]) {
                            // Found a new connected component - gather all pixels
                            std::stack<std::pair<int, int>> stack;
                            std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> component_pixels;
                            stack.push({i_px, j});
                            visited[j][i_px] = true;
 
                            while (!stack.empty()) {
                                auto [ci, cj] = stack.top();
                                stack.pop();
                                component_pixels.push_back({ci, cj});
 
                                // Check 4-connected neighbors
                                for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                                    for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                                        if (abs(di) + abs(dj) != 1)
                                            continue;
                                        int ni = ci + di;
                                        int nj = cj + dj;
                                        if (ni >= 0 && ni < camera_resolution.x && nj >= 0 && nj < camera_resolution.y && mask[nj][ni] && !visited[nj][ni]) {
                                            stack.push({ni, nj});
                                            visited[nj][ni] = true;
                                        }
                                    }
                                }
                            }
 
                            // Calculate mean attribute values for this component (for all attributes)
                            std::map<std::string, double> component_attributes;
                            for (const auto &attr: attribute_info) {
                                double sum = 0.0;
                                int count = 0;
 
                                for (const auto &[px_i, px_j]: component_pixels) {
                                    uint ii = camera_resolution.x - px_i - 1; // horizontal flip because component_pixels are in mask space
                                    uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(px_j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
 
                                    if (context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                                        double value = 0.0;
                                        bool has_value = false;
 
                                        if (attr.is_primitive_data) {
                                            if (context->doesPrimitiveDataExist(UUID, attr.label.c_str())) {
                                                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getPrimitiveDataType(attr.label.c_str());
                                                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                                                    int val;
                                                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                    value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                                                    uint val;
                                                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                    value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                                                    float val;
                                                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                    value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_DOUBLE) {
                                                    context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), value);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                }
                                            }
                                        } else {
                                            uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
                                            if (objID != 0 && context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, attr.label.c_str())) {
                                                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType(attr.label.c_str());
                                                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                                                    int val;
                                                    context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                    value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                                                    uint val;
                                                    context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                    value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                                                    float val;
                                                    context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                    value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_DOUBLE) {
                                                    context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), value);
                                                    has_value = true;
                                                }
                                            }
                                        }
 
                                        if (has_value) {
                                            sum += value;
                                            count++;
                                        }
                                    }
                                }
 
                                if (count > 0) {
                                    component_attributes[attr.label] = sum / count;
                                } else {
                                    component_attributes[attr.label] = 0.0; // Default if no valid data
                                }
                            }
 
                            mean_attribute_values_per_component.push_back(component_attributes);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
 
        // Find the highest existing annotation ID to avoid conflicts
        int max_annotation_id = -1;
        for (const auto &existing_ann: coco_json["annotations"]) {
            if (existing_ann["id"] > max_annotation_id) {
                max_annotation_id = existing_ann["id"];
            }
        }
 
        // Add new annotations for this data label
        size_t ann_idx = 0;
        for (const auto &ann: annotations) {
            nlohmann::json json_annotation;
            json_annotation["id"] = max_annotation_id + 1;
            json_annotation["image_id"] = (int) ann.at("image_id")[0];
            json_annotation["category_id"] = (int) ann.at("category_id")[0];
 
            const auto &bbox = ann.at("bbox");
            json_annotation["bbox"] = {(int) bbox[0], (int) bbox[1], (int) bbox[2], (int) bbox[3]};
            json_annotation["area"] = (int) ann.at("area")[0];
 
            const auto &seg = ann.at("segmentation");
            std::vector<int> segmentation_coords;
            for (float coord: seg) {
                segmentation_coords.push_back((int) coord);
            }
            json_annotation["segmentation"] = {segmentation_coords};
            json_annotation["iscrowd"] = (int) ann.at("iscrowd")[0];
 
            // Add attributes if requested
            if (use_attributes && ann_idx < mean_attribute_values_per_component.size()) {
                json_annotation["attributes"] = mean_attribute_values_per_component[ann_idx];
            }
 
            coco_json["annotations"].push_back(json_annotation);
            max_annotation_id++;
            ann_idx++;
        }
    }
 
    // Write JSON to file
    writeCOCOJson(coco_json, outfile);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &object_data_label, const uint &object_class_ID, const std::string &json_filename, const std::string &image_file,
                                                            const std::vector<std::string> &data_attribute_labels, bool append_file) {
    writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData(cameralabel, std::vector<std::string>{object_data_label}, std::vector<uint>{object_class_ID}, json_filename, image_file, data_attribute_labels, append_file);
}
 
void RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &object_data_label, const std::vector<uint> &object_class_ID, const std::string &json_filename, const std::string &image_file,
                                                            const std::vector<std::string> &data_attribute_labels, bool append_file) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    if (object_data_label.size() != object_class_ID.size()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData): The lengths of object_data_label and object_class_ID vectors must be the same.");
    }
 
    // Check that camera pixel data exists
    std::string global_data_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(global_data_label.c_str())) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData): Pixel labels for camera '" + cameralabel + "' do not exist. Was the radiation model run to generate labels?");
    }
 
    // Check that all object data labels exist
    std::vector<std::string> all_object_data = context->listAllObjectDataLabels();
    helios::WarningAggregator missing_label_warnings;
    for (const auto &data_label: object_data_label) {
        if (std::find(all_object_data.begin(), all_object_data.end(), data_label) == all_object_data.end()) {
            missing_label_warnings.addWarning("missing_object_data_label", "Object data label '" + data_label + "' does not exist in the context.");
        }
    }
    missing_label_warnings.report(std::cerr);
 
    // Check that image file exists
    if (!std::filesystem::exists(image_file)) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeImageSegmentationMasks_ObjectData): Image file '" + image_file + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Validate and ensure JSON filename has .json extension
    std::string validated_json_filename = json_filename;
    if (validated_json_filename.length() < 5 || validated_json_filename.substr(validated_json_filename.length() - 5) != ".json") {
        validated_json_filename += ".json";
    }
 
    // Use the validated filename directly
    std::string outfile = validated_json_filename;
 
    // Write annotations to JSON file
    int2 camera_resolution = cameras.at(cameralabel).resolution;
    auto coco_json_pair = initializeCOCOJsonWithImageId(outfile, append_file, cameralabel, camera_resolution, image_file);
    nlohmann::json coco_json = coco_json_pair.first;
    int image_id = coco_json_pair.second;
    addCategoryToCOCO(coco_json, object_class_ID, object_data_label);
 
    // Check which data_attribute_labels exist in primitive or object data
    struct AttributeInfo {
        std::string label;
        bool is_primitive_data;
        bool exists;
    };
    std::vector<AttributeInfo> attribute_info;
 
    if (!data_attribute_labels.empty()) {
        std::vector<std::string> all_primitive_data = context->listAllPrimitiveDataLabels();
        std::vector<std::string> all_object_data = context->listAllObjectDataLabels();
 
        for (const auto &attr_label: data_attribute_labels) {
            AttributeInfo info;
            info.label = attr_label;
            info.exists = false;
 
            if (std::find(all_primitive_data.begin(), all_primitive_data.end(), attr_label) != all_primitive_data.end()) {
                info.is_primitive_data = true;
                info.exists = true;
            } else if (std::find(all_object_data.begin(), all_object_data.end(), attr_label) != all_object_data.end()) {
                info.is_primitive_data = false;
                info.exists = true;
            }
 
            if (info.exists) {
                attribute_info.push_back(info);
            }
        }
    }
 
    bool use_attributes = !attribute_info.empty();
 
    // Get pixel UUID data
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs;
    std::string pixel_UUID_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
    context->getGlobalData(pixel_UUID_label.c_str(), pixel_UUIDs);
 
    // Process each data label and class ID pair
    for (size_t i = 0; i < object_data_label.size(); ++i) {
        // Generate label masks using helper function (object data version)
        std::map<int, std::vector<std::vector<bool>>> label_masks = generateLabelMasks(cameralabel, object_data_label[i], true);
 
        // Find the highest existing annotation ID to avoid conflicts
        int max_annotation_id = -1;
        for (const auto &existing_ann: coco_json["annotations"]) {
            if (existing_ann["id"] > max_annotation_id) {
                max_annotation_id = existing_ann["id"];
            }
        }
 
        // Generate annotations from masks and calculate attributes together
        // This ensures 1:1 correspondence between annotations and their attributes
        for (const auto &label_pair: label_masks) {
            const auto &mask = label_pair.second;
 
            // Create a visited mask for connected components
            std::vector<std::vector<bool>> visited(camera_resolution.y, std::vector<bool>(camera_resolution.x, false));
 
            // Find all connected components for this label
            for (int j = 0; j < camera_resolution.y; j++) {
                for (int i_px = 0; i_px < camera_resolution.x; i_px++) {
                    if (mask[j][i_px] && !visited[j][i_px]) {
                        // Find boundary pixel for this component
                        int boundary_i = i_px, boundary_j = j;
                        bool is_boundary = false;
 
                        // Check if this pixel is on the boundary
                        for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                            for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                                int ni = i_px + di;
                                int nj = j + dj;
                                if (ni < 0 || ni >= camera_resolution.x || nj < 0 || nj >= camera_resolution.y || !mask[nj][ni]) {
                                    is_boundary = true;
                                    boundary_i = i_px;
                                    boundary_j = j;
                                    break;
                                }
                            }
                            if (is_boundary)
                                break;
                        }
 
                        if (is_boundary) {
                            // First, mark all pixels in this connected component using flood fill
                            std::stack<std::pair<int, int>> stack;
                            std::vector<std::pair<int, int>> component_pixels;
                            stack.push({i_px, j});
                            visited[j][i_px] = true;
 
                            int min_x = i_px, max_x = i_px, min_y = j, max_y = j;
                            int area = 0;
 
                            while (!stack.empty()) {
                                auto [ci, cj] = stack.top();
                                stack.pop();
                                area++;
                                component_pixels.push_back({ci, cj});
 
                                min_x = std::min(min_x, ci);
                                max_x = std::max(max_x, ci);
                                min_y = std::min(min_y, cj);
                                max_y = std::max(max_y, cj);
 
                                // Check 4-connected neighbors
                                for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                                    for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                                        if (abs(di) + abs(dj) != 1)
                                            continue; // Only 4-connected
                                        int ni = ci + di;
                                        int nj = cj + dj;
                                        if (ni >= 0 && ni < camera_resolution.x && nj >= 0 && nj < camera_resolution.y && mask[nj][ni] && !visited[nj][ni]) {
                                            stack.push({ni, nj});
                                            visited[nj][ni] = true;
                                        }
                                    }
                                }
                            }
 
                            // Now trace the boundary of this component
                            auto start_pixel = findStartingBoundaryPixel(mask, camera_resolution);
                            bool is_boundary_start = false;
 
                            if (start_pixel.first >= min_x && start_pixel.first <= max_x && start_pixel.second >= min_y && start_pixel.second <= max_y) {
                                is_boundary_start = true;
                            }
 
                            if (is_boundary_start) {
                                // Try Moore neighborhood boundary tracing first
                                auto contour = traceBoundaryMoore(mask, start_pixel.first, start_pixel.second, camera_resolution);
 
                                // If Moore tracing didn't work well, fall back to simple boundary collection
                                if (contour.size() < 10) {
                                    contour = traceBoundarySimple(mask, start_pixel.first, start_pixel.second, camera_resolution);
                                }
 
                                if (contour.size() >= 3) {
                                    // Calculate mean attribute values for this component (for all attributes)
                                    std::map<std::string, double> component_attributes;
                                    if (use_attributes) {
                                        for (const auto &attr: attribute_info) {
                                            double sum = 0.0;
                                            int count = 0;
 
                                            for (const auto &[px_i, px_j]: component_pixels) {
                                                uint ii = camera_resolution.x - px_i - 1;
                                                uint UUID = pixel_UUIDs.at(px_j * camera_resolution.x + ii) - 1;
 
                                                if (context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                                                    double value = 0.0;
                                                    bool has_value = false;
 
                                                    if (attr.is_primitive_data) {
                                                        if (context->doesPrimitiveDataExist(UUID, attr.label.c_str())) {
                                                            HeliosDataType datatype = context->getPrimitiveDataType(attr.label.c_str());
                                                            if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                                                                int val;
                                                                context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                                value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                                                                uint val;
                                                                context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                                value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                                                                float val;
                                                                context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                                value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_DOUBLE) {
                                                                context->getPrimitiveData(UUID, attr.label.c_str(), value);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            }
                                                        }
                                                    } else {
                                                        uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
                                                        if (objID != 0 && context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, attr.label.c_str())) {
                                                            HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType(attr.label.c_str());
                                                            if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                                                                int val;
                                                                context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                                value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                                                                uint val;
                                                                context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                                value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                                                                float val;
                                                                context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), val);
                                                                value = static_cast<double>(val);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_DOUBLE) {
                                                                context->getObjectData(objID, attr.label.c_str(), value);
                                                                has_value = true;
                                                            }
                                                        }
                                                    }
 
                                                    if (has_value) {
                                                        sum += value;
                                                        count++;
                                                    }
                                                }
                                            }
 
                                            if (count > 0) {
                                                component_attributes[attr.label] = sum / count;
                                            } else {
                                                component_attributes[attr.label] = 0.0; // Default if no valid data
                                            }
                                        }
                                    }
 
                                    // Create annotation with attributes
                                    nlohmann::json json_annotation;
                                    json_annotation["id"] = max_annotation_id + 1;
                                    json_annotation["image_id"] = image_id;
                                    json_annotation["category_id"] = (int) object_class_ID[i];
                                    json_annotation["bbox"] = {min_x, min_y, max_x - min_x, max_y - min_y};
                                    json_annotation["area"] = area;
                                    json_annotation["iscrowd"] = 0;
 
                                    // Convert contour to segmentation format (flatten coordinates)
                                    std::vector<int> segmentation_coords;
                                    for (const auto &point: contour) {
                                        segmentation_coords.push_back(point.first); // x coordinate
                                        segmentation_coords.push_back(point.second); // y coordinate
                                    }
                                    json_annotation["segmentation"] = {segmentation_coords};
 
                                    // Add attributes if requested
                                    if (use_attributes) {
                                        json_annotation["attributes"] = component_attributes;
                                    }
 
                                    coco_json["annotations"].push_back(json_annotation);
                                    max_annotation_id++;
                                }
                            }
                        } else {
                            // Mark all pixels in this non-boundary component as visited
                            std::stack<std::pair<int, int>> stack;
                            stack.push({i_px, j});
                            visited[j][i_px] = true;
 
                            while (!stack.empty()) {
                                auto [ci, cj] = stack.top();
                                stack.pop();
 
                                // Check 4-connected neighbors
                                for (int di = -1; di <= 1; di++) {
                                    for (int dj = -1; dj <= 1; dj++) {
                                        if (abs(di) + abs(dj) != 1)
                                            continue;
                                        int ni = ci + di;
                                        int nj = cj + dj;
                                        if (ni >= 0 && ni < camera_resolution.x && nj >= 0 && nj < camera_resolution.y && mask[nj][ni] && !visited[nj][ni]) {
                                            stack.push({ni, nj});
                                            visited[nj][ni] = true;
                                        }
                                    }
                                }
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }
 
    // Write JSON to file
    writeCOCOJson(coco_json, outfile);
}
 
void RadiationModel::setPadValue(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &bandlabels, const std::vector<float> &padvalues) {
    for (uint b = 0; b < bandlabels.size(); b++) {
        std::string bandlabel = bandlabels.at(b);
 
        std::string image_value_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_" + bandlabel;
        std::vector<float> cameradata;
        context->getGlobalData(image_value_label.c_str(), cameradata);
 
        std::vector<uint> camera_UUIDs;
        std::string image_UUID_label = "camera_" + cameralabel + "_pixel_UUID";
        context->getGlobalData(image_UUID_label.c_str(), camera_UUIDs);
 
        for (uint i = 0; i < cameradata.size(); i++) {
            uint UUID = camera_UUIDs.at(i) - 1;
            if (!context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                cameradata.at(i) = padvalues.at(b);
            }
        }
        context->setGlobalData(image_value_label.c_str(), cameradata);
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::calibrateCamera(const std::string &originalcameralabel, const std::vector<std::string> &sourcelabels, const std::vector<std::string> &cameraresplabels_raw, const std::vector<std::string> &bandlabels, const float scalefactor,
                                     const std::vector<std::vector<float>> &truevalues, const std::string &calibratedmark) {
 
    if (cameras.find(originalcameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::calibrateCamera): Camera " + originalcameralabel + " does not exist.");
    } else if (radiation_sources.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::calibrateCamera): No radiation sources were added to the radiation model. Cannot perform calibration.");
    }
 
    CameraCalibration cameracalibration_(context);
    if (!calibration_flag) {
        std::cout << "No color board added, use default color calibration." << std::endl;
        cameracalibration = &cameracalibration_;
        vec3 centrelocation = make_vec3(0, 0, 0.2); // Location of color board
        vec3 rotationrad = make_vec3(0, 0, 1.5705); // Rotation angle of color board
        cameracalibration->addDefaultColorboard(centrelocation, 0.1, rotationrad);
    }
    vec2 wavelengthrange = make_vec2(-10000, 10000);
 
    // Calibrated camera response labels
    std::vector<std::string> cameraresplabels_cal(cameraresplabels_raw.size());
 
    for (int iband = 0; iband < bandlabels.size(); iband++) {
        cameraresplabels_cal.at(iband) = calibratedmark + "_" + cameraresplabels_raw.at(iband);
    }
 
    RadiationModel::runRadiationImaging(originalcameralabel, sourcelabels, bandlabels, cameraresplabels_raw, wavelengthrange, 1, 0);
    // Update camera responses
    RadiationModel::updateCameraResponse(originalcameralabel, sourcelabels, cameraresplabels_raw, wavelengthrange, truevalues, calibratedmark);
 
    float camerascale = RadiationModel::getCameraResponseScale(originalcameralabel, cameraresplabels_cal, bandlabels, sourcelabels, wavelengthrange, truevalues);
 
    std::cout << "Camera response scale: " << camerascale << std::endl;
    // Scale and write calibrated camera responses
    cameracalibration->writeCalibratedCameraResponses(cameraresplabels_raw, calibratedmark, camerascale * scalefactor);
}
 
void RadiationModel::calibrateCamera(const std::string &originalcameralabel, const float scalefactor, const std::vector<std::vector<float>> &truevalues, const std::string &calibratedmark) {
 
    if (cameras.find(originalcameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::calibrateCamera): Camera " + originalcameralabel + " does not exist.");
    } else if (radiation_sources.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::calibrateCamera): No radiation sources were added to the radiation model. Cannot perform calibration.");
    }
 
    CameraCalibration cameracalibration_(context);
    if (!calibration_flag) {
        std::cout << "No color board added, use default color calibration." << std::endl;
        vec3 centrelocation = make_vec3(0, 0, 0.2); // Location of color board
        vec3 rotationrad = make_vec3(0, 0, 1.5705); // Rotation angle of color board
        cameracalibration_.addDefaultColorboard(centrelocation, 0.1, rotationrad);
        RadiationModel::setCameraCalibration(&cameracalibration_);
    }
 
    vec2 wavelengthrange = make_vec2(-10000, 10000);
 
    std::vector<std::string> bandlabels = cameras.at(originalcameralabel).band_labels;
 
    // Get camera response spectra labels from camera
    std::vector<std::string> cameraresplabels_cal(cameras.at(originalcameralabel).band_spectral_response.size());
    std::vector<std::string> cameraresplabels_raw = cameraresplabels_cal;
 
    int iband = 0;
    for (auto &band: cameras.at(originalcameralabel).band_spectral_response) {
        cameraresplabels_raw.at(iband) = band.second;
        cameraresplabels_cal.at(iband) = calibratedmark + "_" + band.second;
        iband++;
    }
 
    // Get labels of radiation sources from camera
    std::vector<std::string> sourcelabels(radiation_sources.size());
    int isource = 0;
    for (auto &source: radiation_sources) {
        if (source.source_spectrum.empty()) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::calibrateCamera): A spectral distribution was not specified for source " + source.source_spectrum_label + ". Cannot perform camera calibration.");
        }
        sourcelabels.at(isource) = source.source_spectrum_label;
        isource++;
    }
 
    RadiationModel::updateGeometry();
    RadiationModel::runBand(bandlabels);
    // Update camera responses
    RadiationModel::updateCameraResponse(originalcameralabel, sourcelabels, cameraresplabels_raw, wavelengthrange, truevalues, calibratedmark);
 
    float camerascale = RadiationModel::getCameraResponseScale(originalcameralabel, cameraresplabels_cal, bandlabels, sourcelabels, wavelengthrange, truevalues);
 
    std::cout << "Camera response scale: " << camerascale << std::endl;
    // Scale and write calibrated camera responses
    cameracalibration->writeCalibratedCameraResponses(cameraresplabels_raw, calibratedmark, camerascale * scalefactor);
}
 
std::vector<helios::vec2> RadiationModel::generateGaussianCameraResponse(float FWHM, float mu, float centrawavelength, const helios::int2 &wavebandrange) {
 
    // Convert FWHM to sigma
    float sigma = FWHM / (2 * std::sqrt(2 * std::log(2)));
 
    size_t lenspectra = wavebandrange.y - wavebandrange.x;
    std::vector<helios::vec2> cameraresponse(lenspectra);
 
 
    for (int i = 0; i < lenspectra; ++i) {
        cameraresponse.at(i).x = float(wavebandrange.x + i);
    }
 
    // Gaussian function
    for (size_t i = 0; i < lenspectra; ++i) {
        cameraresponse.at(i).y = centrawavelength * std::exp(-std::pow((cameraresponse.at(i).x - mu), 2) / (2 * std::pow(sigma, 2)));
    }
 
 
    return cameraresponse;
}
 
void RadiationModel::applyCameraImageCorrections(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float saturation_adjustment, float brightness_adjustment,
                                                 float contrast_adjustment) {
 
    if (cameras.find(cameralabel) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::applyCameraImageCorrections): Camera '" + cameralabel + "' does not exist.");
    }
    RadiationCamera &camera = cameras.at(cameralabel);
    if (camera.pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == camera.pixel_data.end() || camera.pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == camera.pixel_data.end() || camera.pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == camera.pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::applyCameraImageCorrections): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
 
    // Store parameters for metadata output
    if (camera_metadata.find(cameralabel) == camera_metadata.end()) {
        camera_metadata[cameralabel] = CameraMetadata();
    }
    camera_metadata[cameralabel].image_processing.saturation_adjustment = saturation_adjustment;
    camera_metadata[cameralabel].image_processing.brightness_adjustment = brightness_adjustment;
    camera_metadata[cameralabel].image_processing.contrast_adjustment = contrast_adjustment;
 
    // NOTE: Auto-exposure is now automatically applied during rendering based on camera exposure setting
    // NOTE: White balance is now automatically applied during rendering based on camera white_balance setting
    // NOTE: sRGB gamma compression is now applied during image export in writeCameraImage()
 
    // Step 0: Apply lens flare effect if enabled (before other adjustments)
    if (camera.lens_flare_enabled) {
        LensFlare lens_flare(camera.lens_flare_properties, camera.resolution);
        lens_flare.apply(camera.pixel_data, camera.resolution);
    }
 
    // Step 1: Brightness and contrast adjustments in linear space
    if (brightness_adjustment != 1.f || contrast_adjustment != 1.f) {
        camera.adjustBrightnessContrast(red_band_label, green_band_label, blue_band_label, brightness_adjustment, contrast_adjustment);
    }
 
    // Step 2: Saturation adjustment
    if (saturation_adjustment != 1.f) {
        camera.adjustSaturation(red_band_label, green_band_label, blue_band_label, saturation_adjustment);
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::applyImageProcessingPipeline(const std::string &cameralabel, const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float saturation_adjustment, float brightness_adjustment,
                                                  float contrast_adjustment, float gain_adjustment) {
    applyCameraImageCorrections(cameralabel, red_band_label, green_band_label, blue_band_label, saturation_adjustment, brightness_adjustment, contrast_adjustment);
}
 
void RadiationCamera::normalizePixels() {
 
    float min_P = (std::numeric_limits<float>::max)();
    float max_P = 0.0f;
    for (const auto &[channel_label, data]: pixel_data) {
        for (float v: data) {
            if (v < min_P) {
                min_P = v;
            }
            if (v > max_P) {
                max_P = v;
            }
        }
    }
 
    for (auto &[channel_label, data]: pixel_data) {
        for (float &v: data) {
            v = (v - min_P) / (max_P - min_P); // Normalize to [0, 1]
        }
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::whiteBalance(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float p) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::whiteBalance): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
    if (data_green.size() != N || data_blue.size() != N) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("All channels must have the same length");
    }
    if (p < 1.0f) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("Minkowski exponent p must satisfy p >= 1");
    }
 
    // Compute Minkowski means:
    // \[ M_R = \Bigl(\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^{N}R_i^p\Bigr)^{1/p},\quad
    //    M_G = \Bigl(\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^{N}G_i^p\Bigr)^{1/p},\quad
    //    M_B = \Bigl(\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^{N}B_i^p\Bigr)^{1/p} \]
    float acc_r = 0.0f, acc_g = 0.0f, acc_b = 0.0f;
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        acc_r += std::pow(data_red[i], p);
        acc_g += std::pow(data_green[i], p);
        acc_b += std::pow(data_blue[i], p);
    }
    float mean_r_p = acc_r / static_cast<float>(N);
    float mean_g_p = acc_g / static_cast<float>(N);
    float mean_b_p = acc_b / static_cast<float>(N);
 
    float M_R = std::pow(mean_r_p, 1.0f / p);
    float M_G = std::pow(mean_g_p, 1.0f / p);
    float M_B = std::pow(mean_b_p, 1.0f / p);
 
    // Avoid division by zero
    const float eps = 1e-6f;
    if (M_R < eps || M_G < eps || M_B < eps) {
        throw std::runtime_error("Channel Minkowski mean too small");
    }
 
    // Compute gray reference:
    // \[ M = \frac{M_R + M_G + M_B}{3} \]
    float M = (M_R + M_G + M_B) / 3.0f;
 
    // Derive per-channel gains:
    // \[ s_R = M / M_R,\quad s_G = M / M_G,\quad s_B = M / M_B \]
    helios::vec3 scale;
    scale.x = M / M_R;
    scale.y = M / M_G;
    scale.z = M / M_B;
 
    // Apply gains to each pixel:
    // \[ R'_i = s_R\,R_i,\quad G'_i = s_G\,G_i,\quad B'_i = s_B\,B_i \]
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        data_red[i] *= scale.x;
        data_green[i] *= scale.y;
        data_blue[i] *= scale.z;
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceGrayEdge(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, int derivative_order, float p) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::whiteBalanceGrayEdge): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const int width = resolution.x;
    const int height = resolution.y;
    const std::size_t N = width * height;
 
    if (p < 1.0f) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("Minkowski exponent p must satisfy p >= 1");
    }
    if (derivative_order < 1 || derivative_order > 2) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("Derivative order must be 1 or 2");
    }
 
    // Compute derivatives using simple finite differences
    std::vector<float> deriv_red(N, 0.0f);
    std::vector<float> deriv_green(N, 0.0f);
    std::vector<float> deriv_blue(N, 0.0f);
 
    if (derivative_order == 1) {
        // First-order derivatives (gradient magnitude)
        for (int y = 1; y < height - 1; ++y) {
            for (int x = 1; x < width - 1; ++x) {
                int idx = y * width + x;
 
                // Sobel operator for gradient estimation
                float dx_r = (data_red[(y - 1) * width + (x + 1)] + 2 * data_red[y * width + (x + 1)] + data_red[(y + 1) * width + (x + 1)]) -
                             (data_red[(y - 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_red[y * width + (x - 1)] + data_red[(y + 1) * width + (x - 1)]) / 8.0f;
                float dy_r = (data_red[(y + 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_red[(y + 1) * width + x] + data_red[(y + 1) * width + (x + 1)]) -
                             (data_red[(y - 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_red[(y - 1) * width + x] + data_red[(y - 1) * width + (x + 1)]) / 8.0f;
                deriv_red[idx] = std::sqrt(dx_r * dx_r + dy_r * dy_r);
 
                float dx_g = (data_green[(y - 1) * width + (x + 1)] + 2 * data_green[y * width + (x + 1)] + data_green[(y + 1) * width + (x + 1)]) -
                             (data_green[(y - 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_green[y * width + (x - 1)] + data_green[(y + 1) * width + (x - 1)]) / 8.0f;
                float dy_g = (data_green[(y + 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_green[(y + 1) * width + x] + data_green[(y + 1) * width + (x + 1)]) -
                             (data_green[(y - 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_green[(y - 1) * width + x] + data_green[(y - 1) * width + (x + 1)]) / 8.0f;
                deriv_green[idx] = std::sqrt(dx_g * dx_g + dy_g * dy_g);
 
                float dx_b = (data_blue[(y - 1) * width + (x + 1)] + 2 * data_blue[y * width + (x + 1)] + data_blue[(y + 1) * width + (x + 1)]) -
                             (data_blue[(y - 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_blue[y * width + (x - 1)] + data_blue[(y + 1) * width + (x - 1)]) / 8.0f;
                float dy_b = (data_blue[(y + 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_blue[(y + 1) * width + x] + data_blue[(y + 1) * width + (x + 1)]) -
                             (data_blue[(y - 1) * width + (x - 1)] + 2 * data_blue[(y - 1) * width + x] + data_blue[(y - 1) * width + (x + 1)]) / 8.0f;
                deriv_blue[idx] = std::sqrt(dx_b * dx_b + dy_b * dy_b);
            }
        }
    } else {
        // Second-order derivatives (Laplacian)
        for (int y = 1; y < height - 1; ++y) {
            for (int x = 1; x < width - 1; ++x) {
                int idx = y * width + x;
 
                deriv_red[idx] = std::abs(data_red[(y - 1) * width + x] + data_red[(y + 1) * width + x] + data_red[y * width + (x - 1)] + data_red[y * width + (x + 1)] - 4 * data_red[idx]);
 
                deriv_green[idx] = std::abs(data_green[(y - 1) * width + x] + data_green[(y + 1) * width + x] + data_green[y * width + (x - 1)] + data_green[y * width + (x + 1)] - 4 * data_green[idx]);
 
                deriv_blue[idx] = std::abs(data_blue[(y - 1) * width + x] + data_blue[(y + 1) * width + x] + data_blue[y * width + (x - 1)] + data_blue[y * width + (x + 1)] - 4 * data_blue[idx]);
            }
        }
    }
 
    // Compute Minkowski means of derivatives
    float acc_r = 0.0f, acc_g = 0.0f, acc_b = 0.0f;
    int valid_pixels = 0;
 
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        if (deriv_red[i] > 0 || deriv_green[i] > 0 || deriv_blue[i] > 0) {
            acc_r += std::pow(deriv_red[i], p);
            acc_g += std::pow(deriv_green[i], p);
            acc_b += std::pow(deriv_blue[i], p);
            valid_pixels++;
        }
    }
 
    if (valid_pixels == 0) {
        // No edges detected, fall back to standard white balance
        whiteBalance(red_band_label, green_band_label, blue_band_label, p);
        return;
    }
 
    float mean_r_p = acc_r / static_cast<float>(valid_pixels);
    float mean_g_p = acc_g / static_cast<float>(valid_pixels);
    float mean_b_p = acc_b / static_cast<float>(valid_pixels);
 
    float M_R = std::pow(mean_r_p, 1.0f / p);
    float M_G = std::pow(mean_g_p, 1.0f / p);
    float M_B = std::pow(mean_b_p, 1.0f / p);
 
    // Avoid division by zero
    const float eps = 1e-6f;
    if (M_R < eps || M_G < eps || M_B < eps) {
        // Fall back to standard white balance
        whiteBalance(red_band_label, green_band_label, blue_band_label, p);
        return;
    }
 
    // Compute gray reference
    float M = (M_R + M_G + M_B) / 3.0f;
 
    // Derive per-channel gains
    helios::vec3 scale;
    scale.x = M / M_R;
    scale.y = M / M_G;
    scale.z = M / M_B;
 
    // Apply gains to each pixel
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        data_red[i] *= scale.x;
        data_green[i] *= scale.y;
        data_blue[i] *= scale.z;
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceWhitePatch(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float percentile) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::whiteBalanceWhitePatch): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    if (percentile <= 0.0f || percentile > 1.0f) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("Percentile must be in range (0, 1]");
    }
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
 
    // Find the percentile values for each channel
    std::vector<float> sorted_red = data_red;
    std::vector<float> sorted_green = data_green;
    std::vector<float> sorted_blue = data_blue;
 
    std::size_t k = static_cast<std::size_t>(percentile * (N - 1));
 
    std::nth_element(sorted_red.begin(), sorted_red.begin() + k, sorted_red.end());
    std::nth_element(sorted_green.begin(), sorted_green.begin() + k, sorted_green.end());
    std::nth_element(sorted_blue.begin(), sorted_blue.begin() + k, sorted_blue.end());
 
    float white_r = sorted_red[k];
    float white_g = sorted_green[k];
    float white_b = sorted_blue[k];
 
    // Avoid division by zero
    const float eps = 1e-6f;
    if (white_r < eps || white_g < eps || white_b < eps) {
        throw std::runtime_error("White patch values too small");
    }
 
    // Apply gains to normalize to white
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        data_red[i] /= white_r;
        data_green[i] /= white_g;
        data_blue[i] /= white_b;
    }
}
 
 
void RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceSpectral(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, helios::Context *context) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceSpectral): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    // Check if spectral response data exists for all bands
    if (band_spectral_response.find(red_band_label) == band_spectral_response.end() || band_spectral_response.find(green_band_label) == band_spectral_response.end() || band_spectral_response.find(blue_band_label) == band_spectral_response.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceSpectral): Spectral response data not found for one or more bands. Ensure camera spectral responses are properly initialized.");
    }
 
    // Get spectral response identifiers
    std::string red_response_id = band_spectral_response.at(red_band_label);
    std::string green_response_id = band_spectral_response.at(green_band_label);
    std::string blue_response_id = band_spectral_response.at(blue_band_label);
 
    // Skip if using uniform response (cannot apply spectral white balance)
    if (red_response_id == "uniform" && green_response_id == "uniform" && blue_response_id == "uniform") {
        return;
    }
 
    // Access spectral response data from global data (assuming vec2 format: wavelength, response)
    std::vector<helios::vec2> red_spectrum, green_spectrum, blue_spectrum;
 
    if (red_response_id != "uniform" && context->doesGlobalDataExist(red_response_id.c_str())) {
        context->getGlobalData(red_response_id.c_str(), red_spectrum);
    }
    if (green_response_id != "uniform" && context->doesGlobalDataExist(green_response_id.c_str())) {
        context->getGlobalData(green_response_id.c_str(), green_spectrum);
    }
    if (blue_response_id != "uniform" && context->doesGlobalDataExist(blue_response_id.c_str())) {
        context->getGlobalData(blue_response_id.c_str(), blue_spectrum);
    }
 
    // Verify we have spectral data for all channels
    if (red_spectrum.empty() || green_spectrum.empty() || blue_spectrum.empty()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceSpectral): Could not retrieve spectral response curves for all bands from global data.");
    }
 
    // Compute integrated response (area under curve) for each channel using trapezoidal integration
    // This represents the total sensitivity of each channel assuming a flat light source spectrum
    float red_integrated = 0.0f, green_integrated = 0.0f, blue_integrated = 0.0f;
 
    for (size_t i = 1; i < red_spectrum.size(); ++i) {
        float dw = red_spectrum[i].x - red_spectrum[i - 1].x;
        red_integrated += 0.5f * (red_spectrum[i].y + red_spectrum[i - 1].y) * dw;
    }
    for (size_t i = 1; i < green_spectrum.size(); ++i) {
        float dw = green_spectrum[i].x - green_spectrum[i - 1].x;
        green_integrated += 0.5f * (green_spectrum[i].y + green_spectrum[i - 1].y) * dw;
    }
    for (size_t i = 1; i < blue_spectrum.size(); ++i) {
        float dw = blue_spectrum[i].x - blue_spectrum[i - 1].x;
        blue_integrated += 0.5f * (blue_spectrum[i].y + blue_spectrum[i - 1].y) * dw;
    }
 
    // Check for valid integrated values
    if (red_integrated <= 0 || green_integrated <= 0 || blue_integrated <= 0) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::whiteBalanceSpectral): Invalid integrated spectral response (non-positive value). Check spectral response data.");
    }
 
    // Compute white balance factors relative to each channel's integrated spectral response
    // Normalize relative to the maximum integrated response to preserve brightness
    // This ensures that an object with flat spectral reflectance appears correctly white balanced
    // while keeping the brightest channel at unity gain (factor = 1.0)
    float max_integrated = std::max({red_integrated, green_integrated, blue_integrated});
 
    helios::vec3 white_balance_factors;
    white_balance_factors.x = max_integrated / red_integrated;
    white_balance_factors.y = max_integrated / green_integrated;
    white_balance_factors.z = max_integrated / blue_integrated;
    applied_white_balance_factors = white_balance_factors;
 
    // Apply white balance factors to pixel data
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        data_red[i] *= white_balance_factors.x;
        data_green[i] *= white_balance_factors.y;
        data_blue[i] *= white_balance_factors.z;
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::reinhardToneMapping(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::reinhardToneMapping): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    const std::size_t N = resolution.x * resolution.y;
    constexpr float eps = 1e-6f;
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        float R = data_red[i], G = data_green[i], B = data_blue[i];
        float L = luminance(R, G, B);
        float s = (L > eps) ? (L / (1.0f + L)) / L : 0.0f;
 
        data_red[i] = R * s;
        data_green[i] = G * s;
        data_blue[i] = B * s;
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::applyGain(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float percentile) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::applyGain): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    const std::size_t N = resolution.x * resolution.y;
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    std::vector<float> luminance_pixel;
    luminance_pixel.reserve(N);
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        luminance_pixel.push_back(luminance(data_red[i], data_green[i], data_blue[i]));
    }
 
    std::size_t k = std::size_t(percentile * (luminance_pixel.size() - 1));
    std::nth_element(luminance_pixel.begin(), luminance_pixel.begin() + k, luminance_pixel.end());
    float peak = luminance_pixel[k];
    float gain = (peak > 0.0f) ? 1.0f / peak : 1.0f;
 
    for (auto &[channel, data]: pixel_data) {
        for (float &v: data) {
            v *= gain;
        }
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::globalHistogramEqualization(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::globalHistogramEquilization): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    const size_t N = resolution.x * resolution.y;
    const float eps = 1e-6f;
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    /* luminance array and store original chromaticity */
    std::vector<float> lum(N);
    std::vector<float> chroma_r(N), chroma_g(N), chroma_b(N);
 
    for (size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        vec3 p(data_red[i], data_green[i], data_blue[i]);
        lum[i] = 0.2126f * p.x + 0.7152f * p.y + 0.0722f * p.z;
 
        // Store chromaticity ratios (color information)
        if (lum[i] > eps) {
            chroma_r[i] = p.x / lum[i];
            chroma_g[i] = p.y / lum[i];
            chroma_b[i] = p.z / lum[i];
        } else {
            chroma_r[i] = 1.0f;
            chroma_g[i] = 1.0f;
            chroma_b[i] = 1.0f;
        }
    }
 
    /* build CDF on 2048-bin histogram */
    const int B = 2048;
    std::vector<int> hist(B, 0);
    for (float v: lum) {
        int b = int(std::clamp(v, 0.0f, 1.0f - eps) * B);
        if (b >= 0 && b < 2048) {
            hist[b]++;
        }
    }
    std::vector<float> cdf(B);
    int acc = 0;
    for (int b = 0; b < B; ++b) {
        acc += hist[b];
        cdf[b] = float(acc) / float(N);
    }
 
    /* remap - only adjust luminance, preserve chromaticity */
    for (size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        // Handle bright pixels (> 1.0) specially
        if (lum[i] >= 1.0f) {
            data_red[i] = std::min(1.0f, data_red[i]);
            data_green[i] = std::min(1.0f, data_green[i]);
            data_blue[i] = std::min(1.0f, data_blue[i]);
            continue;
        }
 
        int b = int(std::clamp(lum[i], 0.0f, 1.0f - eps) * B);
 
        if (b < 0 || b >= 2048) {
            continue;
        }
 
        constexpr float k = 0.2f; // how far to pull towards equalised value  (0.2–0.3 OK)
        constexpr float cs = 0.2f; // S-curve strength   (0.4–0.7 recommended)
 
        float Yeq = cdf[b]; // equalised luminance  ∈[0,1]
        float Ynew = (1.0f - k) * lum[i] + k * Yeq; // partial equalisation
 
        /* symmetric S-curve centred at 0.5  :  y = ½ + (x–½)*(1+cs–2·cs·|x–½|)   */
        float t = Ynew - 0.5f;
        Ynew = 0.5f + t * (1.0f + cs - 2.0f * cs * std::fabs(t));
 
        // Reconstruct RGB using new luminance but original chromaticity
        data_red[i] = Ynew * chroma_r[i];
        data_green[i] = Ynew * chroma_g[i];
        data_blue[i] = Ynew * chroma_b[i];
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::adjustSBC(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float saturation, float brightness, float contrast) {
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::adjustSBC): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    constexpr float kRedW = 0.2126f;
    constexpr float kGreenW = 0.7152f;
    constexpr float kBlueW = 0.0722f;
 
    const size_t N = resolution.x * resolution.y;
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    for (int i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
 
        helios::vec3 p(data_red[i], data_green[i], data_blue[i]);
 
        /* ----- 1. luminance ----- */
        float Y = kRedW * p.x + kGreenW * p.y + kBlueW * p.z;
 
        /* ----- 2. saturation ----- */
        p = helios::vec3(Y, Y, Y) + (p - helios::vec3(Y, Y, Y)) * saturation;
 
        /* ----- 3. brightness (gain) ----- */
        p *= brightness;
 
        /* ----- 4. contrast ----- */
        p = (p - helios::vec3(0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f)) * contrast + helios::vec3(0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f);
 
        /* ----- 5. clamp to valid range ----- */
        data_red[i] = clamp(p.x, 0.0f, 1.0f);
        data_green[i] = clamp(p.y, 0.0f, 1.0f);
        data_blue[i] = clamp(p.z, 0.0f, 1.0f);
    }
}
 
// void RadiationCamera::applyCCM(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label) {
//
//     const std::size_t N = resolution.x * resolution.y;
//     auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
//     auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
//     auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
//     for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
//         float R = data_red[i], G = data_green[i], B = data_blue[i];
//         data_red[i] = color_correction_matrix[0] * R + color_correction_matrix[1] * G + color_correction_matrix[2] * B + color_correction_matrix[9];
//         data_green[i] = color_correction_matrix[3] * R + color_correction_matrix[4] * G + color_correction_matrix[5] * B + color_correction_matrix[10];
//         data_blue[i] = color_correction_matrix[6] * R + color_correction_matrix[7] * G + color_correction_matrix[8] * B + color_correction_matrix[11];
//     }
// }
 
void RadiationCamera::gammaCompress(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label) {
 
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::gammaCompress): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    for (float &v: pixel_data.at(red_band_label)) {
        v = lin_to_srgb(std::fmaxf(0.0f, v));
    }
    for (float &v: pixel_data.at(green_band_label)) {
        v = lin_to_srgb(std::fmaxf(0.0f, v));
    }
    for (float &v: pixel_data.at(blue_band_label)) {
        v = lin_to_srgb(std::fmaxf(0.0f, v));
    }
}
 
// New methods for improved image processing pipeline
 
void RadiationCamera::autoExposure(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float gain_multiplier) {
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::autoExposure): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
 
    // Calculate luminance for each pixel
    std::vector<float> luminance_values(N);
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        luminance_values[i] = luminance(data_red[i], data_green[i], data_blue[i]);
    }
 
    // Sort luminance values to find percentiles
    std::vector<float> sorted_luminance = luminance_values;
    std::sort(sorted_luminance.begin(), sorted_luminance.end());
 
    // Calculate 95th percentile for exposure (prevents bright outliers from under-exposing scene)
    std::size_t p95_idx = static_cast<std::size_t>(0.95f * (N - 1));
    float p95_luminance = sorted_luminance[p95_idx];
 
    // Calculate median luminance for scene analysis
    std::size_t median_idx = N / 2;
    float median_luminance = sorted_luminance[median_idx];
 
    // Target median luminance scaled appropriately for the data range
    // Since RGB data is not normalized to [0,1], we need to scale the target accordingly
    float target_median = 0.18f; // Calibrated based on empirical testing
    float auto_gain = target_median / std::max(median_luminance, 1e-6f);
 
    // Clamp auto-gain to reasonable range to prevent over/under exposure
    // auto_gain = std::clamp(auto_gain, 0.0005f, 0.5f);
 
    // Apply final gain (auto-exposure * manual adjustment)
    float final_gain = auto_gain * gain_multiplier;
 
    // Apply gain to all channels
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        data_red[i] *= final_gain;
        data_green[i] *= final_gain;
        data_blue[i] *= final_gain;
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::applyCameraExposure(helios::Context *context) {
    // Skip if pixel_data is empty (camera hasn't been rendered yet)
    if (pixel_data.empty()) {
        return;
    }
 
    // Verify that all expected bands exist in pixel_data
    for (const auto &band: band_labels) {
        if (pixel_data.find(band) == pixel_data.end()) {
            return; // Skip exposure if not all bands are populated yet
        }
    }
 
    // Parse exposure mode
    std::string exposure_mode = exposure;
 
    // Manual mode: no automatic exposure scaling
    if (exposure_mode == "manual") {
        return;
    }
 
    // Auto mode: apply automatic exposure based on camera type
    if (exposure_mode == "auto") {
        // Determine camera type: if not set explicitly, infer from band count
        std::string cam_type;
        if (!camera_type.empty()) {
            cam_type = camera_type;
        } else {
            // Infer type for manually created cameras
            cam_type = (band_labels.size() >= 3) ? "rgb" : "spectral";
        }
 
        if (cam_type == "thermal") {
            // Thermal cameras: skip exposure adjustment
            return;
        } else if (cam_type == "rgb" && band_labels.size() >= 3) {
            // RGB cameras: luminance-based auto-exposure (18% gray target)
 
            // Use the first 3 bands as RGB (or find bands named "red", "green", "blue")
            std::string red_band, green_band, blue_band;
            for (const auto &band: band_labels) {
                if (band.find("red") != std::string::npos || band.find("Red") != std::string::npos || band.find("RED") != std::string::npos) {
                    red_band = band;
                } else if (band.find("green") != std::string::npos || band.find("Green") != std::string::npos || band.find("GREEN") != std::string::npos) {
                    green_band = band;
                } else if (band.find("blue") != std::string::npos || band.find("Blue") != std::string::npos || band.find("BLUE") != std::string::npos) {
                    blue_band = band;
                }
            }
 
            // Fallback to first 3 bands if named bands not found
            if (red_band.empty())
                red_band = band_labels[0];
            if (green_band.empty())
                green_band = band_labels[1];
            if (blue_band.empty())
                blue_band = band_labels[2];
 
            auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band);
            auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band);
            auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band);
 
            const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
 
            // Calculate luminance for each pixel
            std::vector<float> luminance_values(N);
            for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
                luminance_values[i] = luminance(data_red[i], data_green[i], data_blue[i]);
            }
 
            // Sort to find median
            std::vector<float> sorted_luminance = luminance_values;
            std::sort(sorted_luminance.begin(), sorted_luminance.end());
 
            std::size_t median_idx = N / 2;
            float median_luminance = sorted_luminance[median_idx];
 
            // Target 18% gray
            float target_median = 0.18f;
            float auto_gain = target_median / std::max(median_luminance, 1e-6f);
            applied_exposure_gain = auto_gain;
 
            // Apply gain to all bands
            for (auto &band_pair: pixel_data) {
                auto &data = band_pair.second;
                for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
                    data[i] *= auto_gain;
                }
            }
 
        } else if (cam_type == "spectral") {
            // Spectral cameras: per-band normalization.
            //
            // We target a high percentile (not the median) as the exposure reference.
            // Scientific spectral imagery (narrow fluorescence bands, thermal IR,
            // Fraunhofer-line retrievals, etc.) frequently has most of the frame
            // reading near-zero — sky, soil, outside-FOV, or bands where the
            // subject barely emits. A median-based target drives the gain to
            // astronomical values in that case and saturates the subject. Using
            // the 95th percentile anchors the gain to the brightest meaningful
            // signal in the scene, which is photographically and scientifically
            // more sensible.
            //
            // The percentile must be measured over the signal pixels only. When the
            // subject fills less than (100 - percentile)% of the frame, a percentile
            // taken over the whole image lands on the near-zero background, the gain
            // floor below takes over, and the real signal is amplified by ~1/floor
            // (e.g. 0.7/1e-6 ≈ 7e5). The exposure then depends on how much of the
            // frame the subject happens to occupy (camera distance, field of view)
            // rather than on its radiance — a small/distant subject blows up while
            // the same subject filling the frame exposes correctly. Restricting the
            // percentile to pixels above a small fraction of the peak excludes the
            // background and makes the exposure invariant to subject size.
            for (auto &band_pair: pixel_data) {
                auto &data = band_pair.second;
                const std::size_t N = data.size();
 
                std::vector<float> sorted_data = data;
                std::sort(sorted_data.begin(), sorted_data.end());
 
                const float peak_value = sorted_data.back();
 
                // Locate the first "signal" pixel (above a small fraction of the peak)
                // so the percentile is taken over the subject, not the background.
                const float signal_floor = 1e-4f * peak_value;
                const std::size_t first_signal = static_cast<std::size_t>(std::upper_bound(sorted_data.begin(), sorted_data.end(), signal_floor) - sorted_data.begin());
 
                float p95_value;
                if (first_signal >= N) {
                    // Band is entirely background — nothing to anchor to; leave unscaled.
                    p95_value = peak_value;
                } else {
                    const std::size_t signal_count = N - first_signal;
                    const std::size_t p95_idx = first_signal + static_cast<std::size_t>(0.95f * (signal_count - 1));
                    p95_value = sorted_data[p95_idx];
                }
 
                // Map the 95th percentile to ~0.7 (a little below sRGB peak at 1.0)
                // so the brightest 5% sit in the bright-but-not-clipped range. With
                // lin→sRGB gamma applied downstream (writeCameraImage) this lands
                // on roughly 215/255 after gamma correction.
                const float target_p95 = 0.7f;
                const float band_gain = target_p95 / std::max(p95_value, 1e-6f);
                applied_exposure_gain = band_gain;
 
                for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
                    data[i] *= band_gain;
                }
            }
        } else {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::applyCameraExposure): Unknown camera_type '" + cam_type + "'. Must be 'rgb', 'spectral', or 'thermal'.");
        }
        return;
    }
 
    // ISO mode: "ISOXXX" (e.g., "ISO100", "ISO200", etc.)
    if (exposure_mode.substr(0, 3) == "ISO" || exposure_mode.substr(0, 3) == "iso") {
        // Parse ISO value
        int iso_value;
        try {
            iso_value = std::stoi(exposure_mode.substr(3));
        } catch (...) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::applyCameraExposure): Invalid ISO format '" + exposure_mode + "'. Expected format: 'ISOXXX' (e.g., 'ISO100').");
        }
 
        if (iso_value <= 0) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::applyCameraExposure): ISO value must be positive. Got: " + std::to_string(iso_value));
        }
 
        // Validate that lens_focal_length is set (required for ISO mode)
        if (lens_focal_length <= 0) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::applyCameraExposure): ISO mode requires lens_focal_length to be set. Camera '" + label + "' has lens_focal_length = " + std::to_string(lens_focal_length) +
                                 ". Either set it explicitly or use 'auto' or 'manual' exposure mode.");
        }
 
        // Calculate f-number from lens diameter and optical focal length
        // f-number = lens_focal_length / lens_diameter
        float f_number = lens_focal_length / std::max(lens_diameter, 1e-6f);
 
        // Reference camera settings (chosen to match typical photography)
        const float ref_iso = 100.0f;
        const float ref_shutter = 1.0f / 125.0f;
        const float ref_f_number = 2.8f;
 
        // Calibration to match auto-exposure behavior
        // Typical Helios scenes have raw median ~10, auto-exposure targets 0.0675
        // At reference settings (ISO 100, 1/125s, f/2.8), we want the same result as auto
        const float typical_scene_median = 10.0f;
        const float target_median = 0.0675f;
 
        // Calculate exposure from camera settings (proportional to ISO × t / N²)
        // Higher ISO → brighter, longer shutter → brighter, wider aperture (smaller N) → brighter
        float exposure = (float(iso_value) * shutter_speed) / (f_number * f_number);
        float ref_exposure = (ref_iso * ref_shutter) / (ref_f_number * ref_f_number);
 
        // Calibration: at reference settings with typical scene, achieve target_median
        // Required gain at reference: target_median / typical_scene_median
        // This gain must equal: ref_exposure × calibration_factor
        // Therefore: calibration_factor = (target_median / typical_scene_median) / ref_exposure
        float ref_gain = target_median / typical_scene_median;
        float calibration_factor = ref_gain / ref_exposure;
 
        // Final exposure multiplier
        float exposure_multiplier = exposure * calibration_factor;
        applied_exposure_gain = exposure_multiplier;
 
        // Apply exposure to all bands
        const std::size_t N = pixel_data.begin()->second.size();
        for (auto &band_pair: pixel_data) {
            auto &data = band_pair.second;
            for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
                data[i] *= exposure_multiplier;
            }
        }
        return;
    }
 
    // Unknown exposure mode
    helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::applyCameraExposure): Unknown exposure mode '" + exposure_mode + "'. Must be 'auto', 'ISOXXX' (e.g., 'ISO100'), or 'manual'.");
}
 
void RadiationCamera::applyCameraWhiteBalance(helios::Context *context) {
    // Skip if pixel_data is empty (camera hasn't been rendered yet)
    if (pixel_data.empty()) {
        return;
    }
 
    // Verify that all expected bands exist in pixel_data
    for (const auto &band: band_labels) {
        if (pixel_data.find(band) == pixel_data.end()) {
            return; // Skip white balance if not all bands are populated yet
        }
    }
 
    // Parse white balance mode
    std::string wb_mode = white_balance;
 
    // "off" mode: no white balance correction
    if (wb_mode == "off") {
        return;
    }
 
    // Skip white balance for single-channel images (grayscale/thermal)
    if (band_labels.size() < 3) {
        return;
    }
 
    // "auto" mode: apply spectral white balance
    if (wb_mode == "auto") {
        // For 3+ channel images, apply white balance to first 3 channels
        // Assume standard RGB ordering for the first 3 bands
        std::string red_band = band_labels[0];
        std::string green_band = band_labels[1];
        std::string blue_band = band_labels[2];
 
        try {
            whiteBalanceSpectral(red_band, green_band, blue_band, context);
        } catch (const std::exception &e) {
            // If spectral white balance fails (e.g., no spectral data), silently skip
            // This matches the behavior of whiteBalanceSpectral which returns early
            // when all bands use "uniform" response
        }
        return;
    }
 
    // Unknown white balance mode
    helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationCamera::applyCameraWhiteBalance): Unknown white_balance mode '" + wb_mode + "'. Must be 'auto' or 'off'.");
}
 
void RadiationCamera::adjustBrightnessContrast(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float brightness, float contrast) {
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::adjustBrightnessContrast): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
 
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        // Apply brightness adjustment
        float r = data_red[i] * brightness;
        float g = data_green[i] * brightness;
        float b = data_blue[i] * brightness;
 
        // Apply contrast adjustment (around 0.5 midpoint in linear space)
        r = 0.5f + (r - 0.5f) * contrast;
        g = 0.5f + (g - 0.5f) * contrast;
        b = 0.5f + (b - 0.5f) * contrast;
 
        // Store results (allow values outside [0,1] range for HDR processing)
        data_red[i] = r;
        data_green[i] = g;
        data_blue[i] = b;
    }
}
 
void RadiationCamera::adjustSaturation(const std::string &red_band_label, const std::string &green_band_label, const std::string &blue_band_label, float saturation) {
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
    if (pixel_data.find(red_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(green_band_label) == pixel_data.end() || pixel_data.find(blue_band_label) == pixel_data.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::adjustSaturation): One or more specified band labels do not exist for the camera pixel data.");
    }
#endif
 
    auto &data_red = pixel_data.at(red_band_label);
    auto &data_green = pixel_data.at(green_band_label);
    auto &data_blue = pixel_data.at(blue_band_label);
 
    const std::size_t N = data_red.size();
 
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
        float r = data_red[i];
        float g = data_green[i];
        float b = data_blue[i];
 
        // Calculate luminance for this pixel
        float lum = luminance(r, g, b);
 
        // Apply saturation adjustment by interpolating between luminance (grayscale) and original color
        data_red[i] = lum + saturation * (r - lum);
        data_green[i] = lum + saturation * (g - lum);
        data_blue[i] = lum + saturation * (b - lum);
    }
}
 
// -------------------- Camera Metadata Export Methods -------------------- //
 
std::string RadiationModel::detectLightingType() const {
    if (radiation_sources.empty()) {
        return "none";
    }
 
    bool has_sun = false;
    bool has_artificial = false;
 
    for (const auto &source: radiation_sources) {
        if (source.source_type == RADIATION_SOURCE_TYPE_COLLIMATED || source.source_type == RADIATION_SOURCE_TYPE_SUN_SPHERE) {
            has_sun = true;
        } else if (source.source_type == RADIATION_SOURCE_TYPE_SPHERE || source.source_type == RADIATION_SOURCE_TYPE_RECTANGLE || source.source_type == RADIATION_SOURCE_TYPE_DISK) {
            has_artificial = true;
        }
    }
 
    if (has_sun && has_artificial) {
        return "mixed";
    } else if (has_sun) {
        return "sunlight";
    } else if (has_artificial) {
        return "artificial";
    } else {
        return "none";
    }
}
 
float RadiationModel::calculateCameraTiltAngle(const helios::vec3 &position, const helios::vec3 &lookat) const {
    // Calculate viewing direction vector
    helios::vec3 direction = lookat - position;
    direction.normalize();
 
    // Calculate tilt from horizontal (0 = horizontal, 90 = straight down, -90 = straight up)
    // The z component gives us the vertical component of the direction
    // Tilt angle = -asin(direction.z) in degrees
    float tilt_angle_deg = -asin(direction.z) * 180.0f / M_PI;
 
    return tilt_angle_deg;
}
 
void RadiationModel::computeAgronomicProperties(const std::string &camera_label, CameraMetadata::AgronomicProperties &props) const {
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::computeAgronomicProperties): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    const auto &cam = cameras.at(camera_label);
 
    // Clear any existing data
    props.plant_species.clear();
    props.plant_count.clear();
    props.plant_height_m.clear();
    props.plant_age_days.clear();
    props.plant_stage.clear();
    props.leaf_area_m2.clear();
    props.weed_pressure = "";
 
    // Load pixel UUID map from global data
    std::vector<uint> pixel_UUIDs;
    std::string pixel_UUID_label = "camera_" + camera_label + "_pixel_UUID";
    if (!context->doesGlobalDataExist(pixel_UUID_label.c_str())) {
        // No pixel UUID data available - skip agronomic properties
        return;
    }
    context->getGlobalData(pixel_UUID_label.c_str(), pixel_UUIDs);
 
    // Map: species_name -> set of unique plantIDs for that species
    std::map<std::string, std::set<int>> species_to_plantIDs;
 
    // Set of all plantIDs that are weeds
    std::set<int> weed_plantIDs;
 
    // Set of all unique plantIDs (for weed pressure calculation)
    std::set<int> all_plantIDs;
 
    // Maps for new agronomic properties (per species, per plantID)
    std::map<std::string, std::map<int, float>> species_plant_heights; // species -> (plantID -> height)
    std::map<std::string, std::map<int, float>> species_plant_ages; // species -> (plantID -> age)
    std::map<std::string, std::map<int, std::string>> species_plant_stages; // species -> (plantID -> stage)
    std::map<std::string, std::map<int, float>> species_plant_leaf_areas; // species -> (plantID -> leaf area)
    std::map<std::string, std::map<int, int>> species_plant_pixel_counts; // species -> (plantID -> pixel count) for weighted averaging
 
    // Iterate through all pixels to find unique objects and query their data
    for (uint j = 0; j < cam.resolution.y; j++) {
        for (uint i = 0; i < cam.resolution.x; i++) {
            uint pixel_index = j * cam.resolution.x + i;
 
            if (pixel_index >= pixel_UUIDs.size()) {
                continue;
            }
 
            uint UUID_plus_one = pixel_UUIDs.at(pixel_index);
            if (UUID_plus_one == 0) {
                // Sky pixel, skip
                continue;
            }
 
            uint UUID = UUID_plus_one - 1;
 
            // Check if primitive exists
            if (!context->doesPrimitiveExist(UUID)) {
                continue;
            }
 
            // Get parent object ID
            uint objID = context->getPrimitiveParentObjectID(UUID);
            if (objID == 0) {
                // Primitive has no parent object, skip
                continue;
            }
 
            // Query plant_name (species)
            std::string plant_name;
            bool has_plant_name = false;
            if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, "plant_name")) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType("plant_name");
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_STRING) {
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "plant_name", plant_name);
                    has_plant_name = true;
                }
            }
 
            // Query plantID
            int plantID = -1;
            bool has_plantID = false;
            if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, "plantID")) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType("plantID");
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_INT) {
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "plantID", plantID);
                    has_plantID = true;
                } else if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_UINT) {
                    uint plantID_uint;
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "plantID", plantID_uint);
                    plantID = static_cast<int>(plantID_uint);
                    has_plantID = true;
                }
            }
 
            // Query plant_type (to identify weeds)
            std::string plant_type;
            bool has_plant_type = false;
            if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, "plant_type")) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType("plant_type");
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_STRING) {
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "plant_type", plant_type);
                    has_plant_type = true;
                }
            }
 
            // Query plant_height (for new agronomic metadata)
            float plant_height = 0.0f;
            bool has_plant_height = false;
            if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, "plant_height")) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType("plant_height");
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "plant_height", plant_height);
                    has_plant_height = true;
                }
            }
 
            // Query age (for new agronomic metadata)
            float age = 0.0f;
            bool has_age = false;
            if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, "age")) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType("age");
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_FLOAT) {
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "age", age);
                    has_age = true;
                }
            }
 
            // Query phenology_stage (for new agronomic metadata)
            std::string phenology_stage;
            bool has_phenology_stage = false;
            if (context->doesObjectDataExist(objID, "phenology_stage")) {
                HeliosDataType datatype = context->getObjectDataType("phenology_stage");
                if (datatype == HELIOS_TYPE_STRING) {
                    context->getObjectData(objID, "phenology_stage", phenology_stage);
                    has_phenology_stage = true;
                }
            }
 
            // Get primitive surface area (for leaf area calculation)
            float primitive_area = context->getPrimitiveArea(UUID);
 
            // Only process if we have the required data
            if (has_plant_name && has_plantID) {
                // Add plantID to the species set
                species_to_plantIDs[plant_name].insert(plantID);
 
                // Add to all plantIDs set
                all_plantIDs.insert(plantID);
 
                // Check if this plant is a weed
                if (has_plant_type && plant_type == "weed") {
                    weed_plantIDs.insert(plantID);
                }
 
                // Accumulate new agronomic data per species and plantID
                if (has_plant_height) {
                    species_plant_heights[plant_name][plantID] = plant_height;
                }
                if (has_age) {
                    species_plant_ages[plant_name][plantID] = age;
                }
                if (has_phenology_stage) {
                    species_plant_stages[plant_name][plantID] = phenology_stage;
                }
 
                // Accumulate leaf area for this plant
                species_plant_leaf_areas[plant_name][plantID] += primitive_area;
 
                // Track pixel count for weighted averaging
                species_plant_pixel_counts[plant_name][plantID]++;
            }
        }
    }
 
    // If no valid data was found, leave properties empty
    if (species_to_plantIDs.empty()) {
        return;
    }
 
    // Build plant_species and plant_count vectors
    for (const auto &species_pair: species_to_plantIDs) {
        props.plant_species.push_back(species_pair.first);
        props.plant_count.push_back(static_cast<int>(species_pair.second.size()));
    }
 
    // Compute new agronomic properties per species (parallel to plant_species vector)
    for (const auto &species_pair: species_to_plantIDs) {
        const std::string &species = species_pair.first;
        const std::set<int> &plantIDs = species_pair.second;
 
        // --- Plant Height (weighted average by pixel count) ---
        if (species_plant_heights.find(species) != species_plant_heights.end()) {
            float total_weighted_height = 0.0f;
            int total_pixels = 0;
            for (int plantID: plantIDs) {
                if (species_plant_heights.at(species).find(plantID) != species_plant_heights.at(species).end()) {
                    float height = species_plant_heights.at(species).at(plantID);
                    int pixel_count = species_plant_pixel_counts.at(species).at(plantID);
                    total_weighted_height += height * static_cast<float>(pixel_count);
                    total_pixels += pixel_count;
                }
            }
            if (total_pixels > 0) {
                props.plant_height_m.push_back(total_weighted_height / static_cast<float>(total_pixels));
            } else {
                props.plant_height_m.push_back(0.0f);
            }
        } else {
            props.plant_height_m.push_back(0.0f);
        }
 
        // --- Plant Age (weighted average by pixel count) ---
        if (species_plant_ages.find(species) != species_plant_ages.end()) {
            float total_weighted_age = 0.0f;
            int total_pixels = 0;
            for (int plantID: plantIDs) {
                if (species_plant_ages.at(species).find(plantID) != species_plant_ages.at(species).end()) {
                    float age = species_plant_ages.at(species).at(plantID);
                    int pixel_count = species_plant_pixel_counts.at(species).at(plantID);
                    total_weighted_age += age * static_cast<float>(pixel_count);
                    total_pixels += pixel_count;
                }
            }
            if (total_pixels > 0) {
                props.plant_age_days.push_back(total_weighted_age / static_cast<float>(total_pixels));
            } else {
                props.plant_age_days.push_back(0.0f);
            }
        } else {
            props.plant_age_days.push_back(0.0f);
        }
 
        // --- Plant Stage (mode - most common stage) ---
        if (species_plant_stages.find(species) != species_plant_stages.end()) {
            std::map<std::string, int> stage_counts;
            for (int plantID: plantIDs) {
                if (species_plant_stages.at(species).find(plantID) != species_plant_stages.at(species).end()) {
                    std::string stage = species_plant_stages.at(species).at(plantID);
                    stage_counts[stage]++;
                }
            }
            // Find most common stage
            std::string mode_stage;
            int max_count = 0;
            for (const auto &stage_pair: stage_counts) {
                if (stage_pair.second > max_count) {
                    max_count = stage_pair.second;
                    mode_stage = stage_pair.first;
                }
            }
            props.plant_stage.push_back(mode_stage);
        } else {
            props.plant_stage.push_back("");
        }
 
        // --- Leaf Area (sum of all leaf areas for this species) ---
        if (species_plant_leaf_areas.find(species) != species_plant_leaf_areas.end()) {
            float total_leaf_area = 0.0f;
            for (int plantID: plantIDs) {
                if (species_plant_leaf_areas.at(species).find(plantID) != species_plant_leaf_areas.at(species).end()) {
                    total_leaf_area += species_plant_leaf_areas.at(species).at(plantID);
                }
            }
            props.leaf_area_m2.push_back(total_leaf_area);
        } else {
            props.leaf_area_m2.push_back(0.0f);
        }
    }
 
    // Calculate weed pressure
    if (!all_plantIDs.empty()) {
        float weed_fraction = static_cast<float>(weed_plantIDs.size()) / static_cast<float>(all_plantIDs.size());
        float weed_percentage = weed_fraction * 100.0f;
 
        if (weed_percentage <= 20.0f) {
            props.weed_pressure = "low";
        } else if (weed_percentage <= 40.0f) {
            props.weed_pressure = "moderate";
        } else {
            props.weed_pressure = "high";
        }
    }
}
 
void RadiationModel::populateCameraMetadata(const std::string &camera_label, CameraMetadata &metadata) const {
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::populateCameraMetadata): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    const auto &cam = cameras.at(camera_label);
 
    // --- Camera Properties --- //
    metadata.camera_properties.width = cam.resolution.x;
    metadata.camera_properties.height = cam.resolution.y;
    metadata.camera_properties.channels = static_cast<int>(cam.band_labels.size());
    metadata.camera_properties.type = cam.camera_type;
 
    // Calculate sensor dimensions from HFOV and sensor_width_mm
    // sensor_width is already in mm, stored in the camera
    metadata.camera_properties.sensor_width = cam.sensor_width_mm;
 
    // Calculate VFOV from HFOV and aspect ratio
    float VFOV_degrees = cam.HFOV_degrees / cam.FOV_aspect_ratio;
 
    // Calculate sensor height from sensor width and aspect ratio
    metadata.camera_properties.sensor_height = cam.sensor_width_mm / cam.FOV_aspect_ratio;
 
    // Back-calculate optical focal length from HFOV and sensor width for metadata export
    // IMPORTANT: All metadata values reflect the REFERENCE state at zoom=1.0, not the zoomed state.
    // - focal_length is calculated from the base HFOV (cam.HFOV_degrees), not effective HFOV
    // - sensor dimensions are physical properties unaffected by zoom
    // - The zoom value itself is written separately so users can reconstruct effective parameters
    // This ensures metadata accurately reflects the configured camera geometry (HFOV)
    // Note: For ISO exposure calculations, we use lens_focal_length which may differ from this value
    float HFOV_rad = cam.HFOV_degrees * M_PI / 180.0f;
    float optical_focal_length_mm = cam.sensor_width_mm / (2.0f * tan(HFOV_rad / 2.0f));
    metadata.camera_properties.focal_length = optical_focal_length_mm;
 
    // Calculate aperture (f-number = optical_focal_length / lens_diameter)
    if (cam.lens_diameter > 0) {
        float lens_diameter_mm = cam.lens_diameter * 1000.0f; // Convert meters to mm
        float f_number = optical_focal_length_mm / lens_diameter_mm;
        std::ostringstream aperture_str;
        aperture_str << "f/" << std::fixed << std::setprecision(1) << f_number;
        metadata.camera_properties.aperture = aperture_str.str();
    } else {
        metadata.camera_properties.aperture = "pinhole";
    }
 
    // Camera model
    metadata.camera_properties.model = cam.model;
 
    // Lens metadata
    metadata.camera_properties.lens_make = cam.lens_make;
    metadata.camera_properties.lens_model = cam.lens_model;
    metadata.camera_properties.lens_specification = cam.lens_specification;
 
    // Exposure settings
    metadata.camera_properties.exposure = cam.exposure;
    metadata.camera_properties.shutter_speed = cam.shutter_speed;
 
    // White balance mode
    metadata.camera_properties.white_balance = cam.white_balance;
 
    // Zoom setting
    metadata.camera_properties.camera_zoom = cam.camera_zoom;
 
    // --- Location Properties --- //
    helios::Location loc = context->getLocation();
    metadata.location_properties.latitude = loc.latitude_deg;
    metadata.location_properties.longitude = loc.longitude_deg;
 
    // --- Acquisition Properties --- //
    helios::Date date = context->getDate();
    helios::Time time = context->getTime();
 
    // Format date as YYYY-MM-DD
    std::ostringstream date_str;
    date_str << date.year << "-" << std::setw(2) << std::setfill('0') << date.month << "-" << std::setw(2) << std::setfill('0') << date.day;
    metadata.acquisition_properties.date = date_str.str();
 
    // Format time as HH:MM:SS
    std::ostringstream time_str;
    time_str << std::setw(2) << std::setfill('0') << time.hour << ":" << std::setw(2) << std::setfill('0') << time.minute << ":" << std::setw(2) << std::setfill('0') << time.second;
    metadata.acquisition_properties.time = time_str.str();
 
    metadata.acquisition_properties.UTC_offset = loc.UTC_offset;
    metadata.acquisition_properties.camera_height_m = cam.position.z;
    metadata.acquisition_properties.camera_angle_deg = calculateCameraTiltAngle(cam.position, cam.lookat);
    metadata.acquisition_properties.light_source = detectLightingType();
 
    // --- Agronomic Properties --- //
    computeAgronomicProperties(camera_label, metadata.agronomic_properties);
 
    // Note: path field is left empty and will be set when image is written
    metadata.path = "";
}
 
void RadiationModel::enableCameraMetadata(const std::string &camera_label) {
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::enableCameraMetadata): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Preserve any existing image_processing parameters (e.g., from applyCameraImageCorrections)
    CameraMetadata::ImageProcessingProperties saved_image_processing;
    if (camera_metadata.find(camera_label) != camera_metadata.end()) {
        saved_image_processing = camera_metadata.at(camera_label).image_processing;
    }
 
    // Populate metadata from camera properties and context
    CameraMetadata metadata;
    populateCameraMetadata(camera_label, metadata);
 
    // Restore image_processing parameters
    metadata.image_processing = saved_image_processing;
 
    // Store metadata and mark camera as enabled for metadata writing
    camera_metadata[camera_label] = metadata;
    metadata_enabled_cameras.insert(camera_label);
}
 
void RadiationModel::enableCameraMetadata(const std::vector<std::string> &camera_labels) {
    // Enable metadata for each camera in the vector
    for (const auto &camera_label: camera_labels) {
        enableCameraMetadata(camera_label);
    }
}
 
CameraMetadata RadiationModel::getCameraMetadata(const std::string &camera_label) const {
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::getCameraMetadata): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Re-populate metadata to ensure it reflects current state (e.g., light sources, updated context data)
    CameraMetadata metadata;
    populateCameraMetadata(camera_label, metadata);
 
    return metadata;
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraMetadata(const std::string &camera_label, const CameraMetadata &metadata) {
    // Validate camera exists
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraMetadata): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    camera_metadata[camera_label] = metadata;
}
 
std::string RadiationModel::writeCameraMetadataFile(const std::string &camera_label, const std::string &output_path) const {
    // Validate camera has metadata
    if (camera_metadata.find(camera_label) == camera_metadata.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraMetadataFile): No metadata set for camera '" + camera_label + "'.");
    }
 
    const auto &metadata = camera_metadata.at(camera_label);
 
    // Helper lambda to format floats with specific decimal precision for clean JSON output
    // Converts to string with fixed precision, then parses as double to avoid float representation artifacts
    auto format_float = [](float value, int decimals) -> double {
        std::ostringstream oss;
        oss << std::fixed << std::setprecision(decimals) << value;
        return std::stod(oss.str());
    };
 
    // Build JSON structure matching schema
    nlohmann::json j;
    j["path"] = metadata.path;
 
    j["camera_properties"]["height"] = metadata.camera_properties.height;
    j["camera_properties"]["width"] = metadata.camera_properties.width;
    j["camera_properties"]["channels"] = metadata.camera_properties.channels;
    j["camera_properties"]["type"] = metadata.camera_properties.type;
    j["camera_properties"]["focal_length"] = format_float(metadata.camera_properties.focal_length, 2);
    j["camera_properties"]["aperture"] = metadata.camera_properties.aperture;
    j["camera_properties"]["sensor_width"] = format_float(metadata.camera_properties.sensor_width, 2);
    j["camera_properties"]["sensor_height"] = format_float(metadata.camera_properties.sensor_height, 2);
    j["camera_properties"]["model"] = metadata.camera_properties.model;
 
    // Only include lens fields if they're not empty
    if (!metadata.camera_properties.lens_make.empty()) {
        j["camera_properties"]["lens_make"] = metadata.camera_properties.lens_make;
    }
    if (!metadata.camera_properties.lens_model.empty()) {
        j["camera_properties"]["lens_model"] = metadata.camera_properties.lens_model;
    }
    if (!metadata.camera_properties.lens_specification.empty()) {
        j["camera_properties"]["lens_specification"] = metadata.camera_properties.lens_specification;
    }
 
    // Exposure settings
    j["camera_properties"]["exposure"] = metadata.camera_properties.exposure;
    j["camera_properties"]["shutter_speed"] = format_float(metadata.camera_properties.shutter_speed, 6);
 
    // White balance mode
    j["camera_properties"]["white_balance"] = metadata.camera_properties.white_balance;
 
    // Camera zoom setting
    j["camera_properties"]["zoom"] = format_float(metadata.camera_properties.camera_zoom, 2);
 
    j["location_properties"]["latitude"] = format_float(metadata.location_properties.latitude, 6);
    j["location_properties"]["longitude"] = format_float(metadata.location_properties.longitude, 6);
 
    j["acquisition_properties"]["date"] = metadata.acquisition_properties.date;
    j["acquisition_properties"]["time"] = metadata.acquisition_properties.time;
    j["acquisition_properties"]["UTC_offset"] = format_float(metadata.acquisition_properties.UTC_offset, 1);
    j["acquisition_properties"]["camera_height_m"] = format_float(metadata.acquisition_properties.camera_height_m, 2);
    j["acquisition_properties"]["camera_angle_deg"] = format_float(metadata.acquisition_properties.camera_angle_deg, 2);
    j["acquisition_properties"]["light_source"] = metadata.acquisition_properties.light_source;
 
    // Always include image_processing section with color_space
    const auto &img_proc = metadata.image_processing;
    j["image_processing"]["exposure_gain"] = format_float(img_proc.exposure_gain, 4);
    j["image_processing"]["white_balance_factors"] = {format_float(img_proc.white_balance_factors.x, 4),
                                                      format_float(img_proc.white_balance_factors.y, 4),
                                                      format_float(img_proc.white_balance_factors.z, 4)};
    j["image_processing"]["saturation_adjustment"] = format_float(img_proc.saturation_adjustment, 2);
    j["image_processing"]["brightness_adjustment"] = format_float(img_proc.brightness_adjustment, 2);
    j["image_processing"]["contrast_adjustment"] = format_float(img_proc.contrast_adjustment, 2);
    j["image_processing"]["color_space"] = img_proc.color_space;
 
    // Only include agronomic_properties if data is available
    if (!metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_species.empty()) {
        j["agronomic_properties"]["plant_species"] = metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_species;
        j["agronomic_properties"]["plant_count"] = metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_count;
 
        // Format new agronomic fields with appropriate precision
        if (!metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_height_m.empty()) {
            std::vector<double> formatted_heights;
            for (float height: metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_height_m) {
                formatted_heights.push_back(format_float(height, 2));
            }
            j["agronomic_properties"]["plant_height_m"] = formatted_heights;
        }
 
        if (!metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_age_days.empty()) {
            std::vector<double> formatted_ages;
            for (float age: metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_age_days) {
                formatted_ages.push_back(format_float(age, 1));
            }
            j["agronomic_properties"]["plant_age_days"] = formatted_ages;
        }
 
        if (!metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_stage.empty()) {
            j["agronomic_properties"]["plant_stage"] = metadata.agronomic_properties.plant_stage;
        }
 
        if (!metadata.agronomic_properties.leaf_area_m2.empty()) {
            std::vector<double> formatted_leaf_areas;
            for (float area: metadata.agronomic_properties.leaf_area_m2) {
                formatted_leaf_areas.push_back(format_float(area, 4));
            }
            j["agronomic_properties"]["leaf_area_m2"] = formatted_leaf_areas;
        }
 
        j["agronomic_properties"]["weed_pressure"] = metadata.agronomic_properties.weed_pressure;
    }
 
    // Generate JSON filename (replace image extension with .json)
    std::string json_filename = metadata.path;
    size_t ext_pos = json_filename.find_last_of(".");
    if (ext_pos != std::string::npos) {
        json_filename = json_filename.substr(0, ext_pos) + ".json";
    } else {
        json_filename += ".json";
    }
 
    // Construct full path with output directory
    std::string json_path = output_path + json_filename;
 
    // Write to file
    std::ofstream json_file(json_path);
    if (!json_file.is_open()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::writeCameraMetadataFile): Failed to open file '" + json_path + "' for writing.");
    }
    json_file << j.dump(2) << std::endl; // Pretty print with 2-space indentation
    json_file.close();
 
    return json_path;
}
 
void RadiationModel::enableCameraLensFlare(const std::string &camera_label) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::enableCameraLensFlare): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
    cameras.at(camera_label).lens_flare_enabled = true;
}
 
void RadiationModel::disableCameraLensFlare(const std::string &camera_label) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::disableCameraLensFlare): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
    cameras.at(camera_label).lens_flare_enabled = false;
}
 
bool RadiationModel::isCameraLensFlareEnabled(const std::string &camera_label) const {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::isCameraLensFlareEnabled): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
    return cameras.at(camera_label).lens_flare_enabled;
}
 
void RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties(const std::string &camera_label, const LensFlareProperties &properties) {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
 
    // Validate properties
    if (properties.aperture_blade_count < 3) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): aperture_blade_count must be at least 3.");
    }
    if (properties.coating_efficiency < 0.0f || properties.coating_efficiency > 1.0f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): coating_efficiency must be in range [0.0, 1.0].");
    }
    if (properties.ghost_intensity < 0.0f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): ghost_intensity must be non-negative.");
    }
    if (properties.starburst_intensity < 0.0f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): starburst_intensity must be non-negative.");
    }
    if (properties.intensity_threshold < 0.0f || properties.intensity_threshold > 1.0f) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): intensity_threshold must be in range [0.0, 1.0].");
    }
    if (properties.ghost_count < 1) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::setCameraLensFlareProperties): ghost_count must be at least 1.");
    }
 
    cameras.at(camera_label).lens_flare_properties = properties;
}
 
LensFlareProperties RadiationModel::getCameraLensFlareProperties(const std::string &camera_label) const {
    if (cameras.find(camera_label) == cameras.end()) {
        helios_runtime_error("ERROR (RadiationModel::getCameraLensFlareProperties): Camera '" + camera_label + "' does not exist.");
    }
    return cameras.at(camera_label).lens_flare_properties;
}