VulkanComputeBackend.cpp

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#include "VulkanComputeBackend.h"
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
 
namespace helios {
 
    bool VulkanComputeBackend::probe() noexcept {
        try {
            VulkanDevice probe_device;
            probe_device.initialize(false);
            probe_device.shutdown();
            return true;
        } catch (...) {
            return false;
        }
    }
 
    VulkanComputeBackend::VulkanComputeBackend() : device(new VulkanDevice()), owns_device(true) {
        // Production mode: own the device
    }
 
    VulkanComputeBackend::VulkanComputeBackend(VulkanDevice *external_device) : device(external_device), owns_device(false) {
        // Test mode: borrow pre-initialized device from test singleton
        if (!device) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend): external_device cannot be nullptr");
        }
    }
 
    VulkanComputeBackend::~VulkanComputeBackend() {
        shutdown();
        if (owns_device) {
            delete device;
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::initialize() {
        // Determine whether to enable validation layers
        // Default: disabled for tests (20-30% faster), enabled in debug builds
        // Can be explicitly controlled via HELIOS_VULKAN_VALIDATION environment variable
        bool enable_validation = false;
 
#ifndef NDEBUG
        // Debug builds: enable validation by default
        enable_validation = true;
#endif
 
        // Allow environment variable override
        const char *validation_env = std::getenv("HELIOS_VULKAN_VALIDATION");
        if (validation_env != nullptr) {
            std::string val(validation_env);
            if (val == "1" || val == "true" || val == "TRUE") {
                enable_validation = true;
            } else if (val == "0" || val == "false" || val == "FALSE") {
                enable_validation = false;
            }
        }
 
        // Initialize Vulkan device (only if we own it - shared device already initialized)
        if (owns_device) {
            device->initialize(enable_validation);
        }
 
        // Create command resources
        createCommandResources();
 
        // Create descriptor sets and pipelines
        createDescriptorSets();
        createPipelines();
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::shutdown() {
        if (!device || device->getDevice() == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            return; // Already shutdown
        }
 
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // Wait for device idle
        vkDeviceWaitIdle(vk_device);
 
        // Destroy pipelines
        if (pipeline_direct != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyPipeline(vk_device, pipeline_direct, nullptr);
        if (pipeline_diffuse != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyPipeline(vk_device, pipeline_diffuse, nullptr);
        if (pipeline_camera != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyPipeline(vk_device, pipeline_camera, nullptr);
        if (pipeline_pixel_label != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyPipeline(vk_device, pipeline_pixel_label, nullptr);
        if (pipeline_layout != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyPipelineLayout(vk_device, pipeline_layout, nullptr);
 
        // Destroy descriptor pool (also frees sets)
        if (descriptor_pool != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyDescriptorPool(vk_device, descriptor_pool, nullptr);
        if (set_layout_geometry != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, set_layout_geometry, nullptr);
        if (set_layout_materials != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, set_layout_materials, nullptr);
        if (set_layout_results != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, set_layout_results, nullptr);
        if (set_layout_sky != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, set_layout_sky, nullptr);
        if (set_layout_debug != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, set_layout_debug, nullptr);
 
        // Destroy buffers
        destroyBuffer(bvh_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(primitive_indices_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(transform_matrices_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(primitive_types_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(primitive_uuids_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(primitive_positions_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(object_subdivisions_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(twosided_flag_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(patch_vertices_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(triangle_vertices_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(normal_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(mask_data_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(mask_sizes_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(mask_offsets_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(mask_IDs_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(uv_data_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(uv_IDs_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(source_positions_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(source_types_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(source_rotations_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(source_widths_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(source_fluxes_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(source_fluxes_cam_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(reflectivity_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(transmissivity_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(specular_exponent_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(specular_scale_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(radiation_in_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_radiation_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_pixel_label_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_pixel_depth_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_scatter_top_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_scatter_bottom_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(radiation_specular_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(diffuse_flux_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(diffuse_peak_dir_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(diffuse_extinction_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(diffuse_dist_norm_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(sky_radiance_params_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_sky_radiance_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(solar_disk_radiance_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(camera_diffuse_flux_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(band_emission_flag_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(debug_counters_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(bbox_vertices_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(band_map_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(is_glass_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(glass_n_buffer);
        destroyBuffer(glass_KL_buffer);
 
        // Destroy command resources
        if (transfer_fence != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyFence(vk_device, transfer_fence, nullptr);
        if (compute_fence != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyFence(vk_device, compute_fence, nullptr);
        if (timestamp_query_pool != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyQueryPool(vk_device, timestamp_query_pool, nullptr);
        if (command_pool != VK_NULL_HANDLE)
            vkDestroyCommandPool(vk_device, command_pool, nullptr);
 
        // Only shutdown device if we own it (shared device managed by singleton)
        if (owns_device) {
            device->shutdown();
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry(const RayTracingGeometry &geometry) {
        validateGeometryBeforeUpload(geometry);
 
        primitive_count = geometry.primitive_count;
 
        if (primitive_count == 0) {
            return; // Empty geometry
        }
 
        // Build BVH2 on CPU, then convert to CWBVH (8-wide with quantized AABBs)
        bvh_nodes = bvh_builder.build(geometry);
        std::vector<CWBVH_Node> cwbvh_nodes = bvh_builder.convertToCWBVH(bvh_nodes);
 
        // Upload CWBVH to GPU
        if (!cwbvh_nodes.empty()) {
            if (bvh_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(bvh_buffer);
            }
            bvh_buffer = createBuffer(cwbvh_nodes.size() * sizeof(CWBVH_Node), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(bvh_buffer, cwbvh_nodes.data(), cwbvh_nodes.size() * sizeof(CWBVH_Node));
        }
 
        // Upload primitive indices
        const auto &prim_indices = bvh_builder.getPrimitiveIndices();
        if (!prim_indices.empty()) {
            if (primitive_indices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(primitive_indices_buffer);
            }
            primitive_indices_buffer = createBuffer(prim_indices.size() * sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(primitive_indices_buffer, prim_indices.data(), prim_indices.size() * sizeof(uint32_t));
        }
 
        // Upload transform matrices
        if (!geometry.transform_matrices.empty()) {
            size_t expected_size = primitive_count * 16;
            if (geometry.transform_matrices.size() != expected_size) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry): transform_matrices size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(expected_size) + " floats (16 per primitive), got " +
                                     std::to_string(geometry.transform_matrices.size()));
            }
 
            if (transform_matrices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(transform_matrices_buffer);
            }
            transform_matrices_buffer = createBuffer(geometry.transform_matrices.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(transform_matrices_buffer, geometry.transform_matrices.data(), geometry.transform_matrices.size() * sizeof(float));
        }
 
        // Upload primitive types
        if (!geometry.primitive_types.empty()) {
            if (geometry.primitive_types.size() != primitive_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry): primitive_types size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(primitive_count) + " entries, got " + std::to_string(geometry.primitive_types.size()));
            }
 
            if (primitive_types_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(primitive_types_buffer);
            }
            primitive_types_buffer = createBuffer(geometry.primitive_types.size() * sizeof(uint), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(primitive_types_buffer, geometry.primitive_types.data(), geometry.primitive_types.size() * sizeof(uint));
        }
 
        // Upload primitive UUIDs
        if (!geometry.primitive_UUIDs.empty()) {
            if (geometry.primitive_UUIDs.size() != primitive_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry): primitive_UUIDs size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(primitive_count) + " entries, got " + std::to_string(geometry.primitive_UUIDs.size()));
            }
 
            if (primitive_uuids_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(primitive_uuids_buffer);
            }
            primitive_uuids_buffer = createBuffer(geometry.primitive_UUIDs.size() * sizeof(uint), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(primitive_uuids_buffer, geometry.primitive_UUIDs.data(), geometry.primitive_UUIDs.size() * sizeof(uint));
        }
 
        // Upload UUID→position lookup
        if (!geometry.primitive_positions.empty()) {
            if (primitive_positions_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(primitive_positions_buffer);
            }
            primitive_positions_buffer = createBuffer(geometry.primitive_positions.size() * sizeof(uint), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(primitive_positions_buffer, geometry.primitive_positions.data(), geometry.primitive_positions.size() * sizeof(uint));
        }
 
        // Upload object subdivisions
        if (!geometry.object_subdivisions.empty()) {
            if (geometry.object_subdivisions.size() != primitive_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry): object_subdivisions size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(primitive_count) + " entries, got " + std::to_string(geometry.object_subdivisions.size()));
            }
 
            if (object_subdivisions_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(object_subdivisions_buffer);
            }
            object_subdivisions_buffer = createBuffer(geometry.object_subdivisions.size() * sizeof(helios::int2), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(object_subdivisions_buffer, geometry.object_subdivisions.data(), geometry.object_subdivisions.size() * sizeof(helios::int2));
        }
 
        // Upload twosided flags
        if (!geometry.twosided_flags.empty()) {
            if (geometry.twosided_flags.size() != primitive_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry): twosided_flags size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(primitive_count) + " entries, got " + std::to_string(geometry.twosided_flags.size()));
            }
 
            if (twosided_flag_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(twosided_flag_buffer);
            }
            // Convert char to uint for GPU (easier access)
            std::vector<uint> twosided_uint(geometry.twosided_flags.begin(), geometry.twosided_flags.end());
            twosided_flag_buffer = createBuffer(twosided_uint.size() * sizeof(uint), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(twosided_flag_buffer, twosided_uint.data(), twosided_uint.size() * sizeof(uint));
        }
 
        // Build pre-transformed (world-space) vertex buffers indexed by global primitive index.
        // Vertices are transformed from canonical local space to world space using each primitive's
        // transform matrix. This eliminates per-ray matrix loads and transform_point() calls in the
        // BVH traversal shader inner loop — the single biggest GPU performance optimization.
        {
            static const helios::vec3 canonical_quad[4] = {{-0.5f, -0.5f, 0.f}, {0.5f, -0.5f, 0.f}, {0.5f, 0.5f, 0.f}, {-0.5f, 0.5f, 0.f}};
            static const helios::vec3 canonical_tri[3] = {{0.f, 0.f, 0.f}, {0.f, 1.f, 0.f}, {1.f, 1.f, 0.f}};
 
            // Patch/tile vertex buffer: 4 vec3s per primitive slot, indexed by global prim_idx
            std::vector<helios::vec3> patch_verts(primitive_count * 4, helios::make_vec3(0.f, 0.f, 0.f));
            // Triangle vertex buffer: 3 vec3s per primitive slot, indexed by global prim_idx
            std::vector<helios::vec3> tri_verts(primitive_count * 3, helios::make_vec3(0.f, 0.f, 0.f));
 
            for (size_t i = 0; i < primitive_count; ++i) {
                uint prim_type = geometry.primitive_types[i];
                const float *transform = &geometry.transform_matrices[i * 16];
 
                if (prim_type == 0 || prim_type == 3) { // Patch or Tile
                    for (int v = 0; v < 4; ++v) {
                        const helios::vec3 &p = canonical_quad[v];
                        helios::vec3 world_v;
                        world_v.x = transform[0] * p.x + transform[1] * p.y + transform[2] * p.z + transform[3];
                        world_v.y = transform[4] * p.x + transform[5] * p.y + transform[6] * p.z + transform[7];
                        world_v.z = transform[8] * p.x + transform[9] * p.y + transform[10] * p.z + transform[11];
                        patch_verts[i * 4 + v] = world_v;
                    }
                } else if (prim_type == 1) { // Triangle
                    for (int v = 0; v < 3; ++v) {
                        const helios::vec3 &p = canonical_tri[v];
                        helios::vec3 world_v;
                        world_v.x = transform[0] * p.x + transform[1] * p.y + transform[2] * p.z + transform[3];
                        world_v.y = transform[4] * p.x + transform[5] * p.y + transform[6] * p.z + transform[7];
                        world_v.z = transform[8] * p.x + transform[9] * p.y + transform[10] * p.z + transform[11];
                        tri_verts[i * 3 + v] = world_v;
                    }
                }
            }
 
            if (patch_vertices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(patch_vertices_buffer);
            }
            patch_vertices_buffer = createBuffer(patch_verts.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(patch_vertices_buffer, patch_verts.data(), patch_verts.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3));
 
            if (triangle_vertices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(triangle_vertices_buffer);
            }
            triangle_vertices_buffer = createBuffer(tri_verts.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(triangle_vertices_buffer, tri_verts.data(), tri_verts.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3));
        }
 
        // Pre-compute world-space normals for each primitive.
        // Eliminates per-thread get_patch_normal() / get_triangle_normal() (3 transform_point + cross product)
        // in both direct and diffuse shaders, and also eliminates the per-hit normal computation in diffuse.
        {
            static const helios::vec3 patch_v0 = {0.f, 0.f, 0.f};
            static const helios::vec3 patch_v1 = {1.f, 0.f, 0.f};
            static const helios::vec3 patch_v2 = {0.f, 1.f, 0.f};
            static const helios::vec3 tri_v0 = {0.f, 0.f, 0.f};
            static const helios::vec3 tri_v1 = {0.f, 1.f, 0.f};
            static const helios::vec3 tri_v2 = {1.f, 1.f, 0.f};
 
            std::vector<helios::vec3> normals(primitive_count);
 
            for (size_t i = 0; i < primitive_count; ++i) {
                const float *t = &geometry.transform_matrices[i * 16];
                uint prim_type = geometry.primitive_types[i];
 
                // Choose canonical vertices based on primitive type
                helios::vec3 cv0, cv1, cv2;
                if (prim_type == 0 || prim_type == 2 || prim_type == 3) { // Patch, Disk, or Tile
                    cv0 = patch_v0;
                    cv1 = patch_v1;
                    cv2 = patch_v2;
                } else if (prim_type == 1) { // Triangle
                    cv0 = tri_v0;
                    cv1 = tri_v1;
                    cv2 = tri_v2;
                } else {
                    normals[i] = helios::make_vec3(0.f, 0.f, 1.f);
                    continue;
                }
 
                // Transform canonical vertices to world space
                helios::vec3 w0, w1, w2;
                w0.x = t[0] * cv0.x + t[1] * cv0.y + t[2] * cv0.z + t[3];
                w0.y = t[4] * cv0.x + t[5] * cv0.y + t[6] * cv0.z + t[7];
                w0.z = t[8] * cv0.x + t[9] * cv0.y + t[10] * cv0.z + t[11];
                w1.x = t[0] * cv1.x + t[1] * cv1.y + t[2] * cv1.z + t[3];
                w1.y = t[4] * cv1.x + t[5] * cv1.y + t[6] * cv1.z + t[7];
                w1.z = t[8] * cv1.x + t[9] * cv1.y + t[10] * cv1.z + t[11];
                w2.x = t[0] * cv2.x + t[1] * cv2.y + t[2] * cv2.z + t[3];
                w2.y = t[4] * cv2.x + t[5] * cv2.y + t[6] * cv2.z + t[7];
                w2.z = t[8] * cv2.x + t[9] * cv2.y + t[10] * cv2.z + t[11];
 
                // cross(w1 - w0, w2 - w0) then normalize
                helios::vec3 e1 = w1 - w0;
                helios::vec3 e2 = w2 - w0;
                helios::vec3 n = cross(e1, e2);
                float len = std::sqrt(n.x * n.x + n.y * n.y + n.z * n.z);
                if (len > 1e-8f) {
                    normals[i] = n / len;
                } else {
                    normals[i] = helios::make_vec3(0.f, 0.f, 1.f);
                }
            }
 
            if (normal_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(normal_buffer);
            }
            normal_buffer = createBuffer(normals.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(normal_buffer, normals.data(), normals.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3));
        }
 
        // Upload texture mask and UV data
        {
            // Convert mask_data from vector<bool> to flat uint32_t array (0 or 1 per texel)
            std::vector<uint32_t> mask_offsets;
            uint32_t current_offset = 0;
            for (const auto &sz: geometry.mask_sizes) {
                mask_offsets.push_back(current_offset);
                current_offset += static_cast<uint32_t>(sz.x) * static_cast<uint32_t>(sz.y);
            }
 
            std::vector<uint32_t> mask_data_uint;
            if (current_offset > 0) {
                if (geometry.mask_data.size() < current_offset) {
                    helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateGeometry): mask_data size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(current_offset) + " texels, got " + std::to_string(geometry.mask_data.size()));
                }
                mask_data_uint.resize(current_offset, 0);
                for (size_t i = 0; i < current_offset; ++i) {
                    mask_data_uint[i] = geometry.mask_data[i] ? 1 : 0;
                }
            }
 
            // Reformat UV data: allocate 4 vec2 per primitive (flat array)
            std::vector<helios::vec2> uv_flat(primitive_count * 4, helios::make_vec2(0.f, 0.f));
            size_t uv_read_offset = 0;
            for (size_t p = 0; p < primitive_count; ++p) {
                if (!geometry.uv_IDs.empty() && geometry.uv_IDs[p] >= 0) {
                    // This primitive has custom UVs - read next 4 from uv_data
                    for (int v = 0; v < 4 && uv_read_offset < geometry.uv_data.size(); ++v) {
                        uv_flat[p * 4 + v] = geometry.uv_data[uv_read_offset++];
                    }
                }
                // If uv_IDs[p] == -1, keep default zeros (unused, will use parametric UVs in shader)
            }
 
 
            // Upload mask_data_buffer
            if (mask_data_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(mask_data_buffer);
            }
            if (!mask_data_uint.empty()) {
                mask_data_buffer = createBuffer(mask_data_uint.size() * sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(mask_data_buffer, mask_data_uint.data(), mask_data_uint.size() * sizeof(uint32_t));
            } else {
                // Keep placeholder buffer if no mask data
                mask_data_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            }
 
            // Upload mask_sizes_buffer
            if (mask_sizes_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(mask_sizes_buffer);
            }
            if (!geometry.mask_sizes.empty()) {
                mask_sizes_buffer = createBuffer(geometry.mask_sizes.size() * sizeof(helios::int2), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(mask_sizes_buffer, geometry.mask_sizes.data(), geometry.mask_sizes.size() * sizeof(helios::int2));
            } else {
                mask_sizes_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(int32_t) * 2, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            }
 
            // Upload mask_offsets_buffer
            if (mask_offsets_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(mask_offsets_buffer);
            }
            if (!mask_offsets.empty()) {
                mask_offsets_buffer = createBuffer(mask_offsets.size() * sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(mask_offsets_buffer, mask_offsets.data(), mask_offsets.size() * sizeof(uint32_t));
            } else {
                mask_offsets_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            }
 
            // Upload mask_IDs_buffer
            if (mask_IDs_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(mask_IDs_buffer);
            }
            if (!geometry.mask_IDs.empty()) {
                // Convert to int32_t
                std::vector<int32_t> mask_IDs_int32(geometry.mask_IDs.begin(), geometry.mask_IDs.end());
                mask_IDs_buffer = createBuffer(mask_IDs_int32.size() * sizeof(int32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(mask_IDs_buffer, mask_IDs_int32.data(), mask_IDs_int32.size() * sizeof(int32_t));
            } else {
                mask_IDs_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(int32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            }
 
            // Upload uv_data_buffer
            if (uv_data_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(uv_data_buffer);
            }
            if (!uv_flat.empty()) {
                uv_data_buffer = createBuffer(uv_flat.size() * sizeof(helios::vec2), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(uv_data_buffer, uv_flat.data(), uv_flat.size() * sizeof(helios::vec2));
            } else {
                uv_data_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(float) * 2, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            }
 
            // Upload uv_IDs_buffer
            if (uv_IDs_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(uv_IDs_buffer);
            }
            if (!geometry.uv_IDs.empty()) {
                // Convert to int32_t
                std::vector<int32_t> uv_IDs_int32(geometry.uv_IDs.begin(), geometry.uv_IDs.end());
                uv_IDs_buffer = createBuffer(uv_IDs_int32.size() * sizeof(int32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(uv_IDs_buffer, uv_IDs_int32.data(), uv_IDs_int32.size() * sizeof(int32_t));
            } else {
                uv_IDs_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(int32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            }
        }
 
        // Upload periodic boundary bbox data
        {
            bbox_count = geometry.bbox_count;
            periodic_flag_x = geometry.periodic_flag.x;
            periodic_flag_y = geometry.periodic_flag.y;
 
            if (bbox_vertices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(bbox_vertices_buffer);
            }
 
            if (bbox_count > 0 && !geometry.bboxes.vertices.empty()) {
                // Flatten vec3 vertices to float array (4 vertices per face, 3 floats each = 12 floats per face)
                std::vector<float> bbox_verts_flat;
                bbox_verts_flat.reserve(bbox_count * 12);
                for (size_t i = 0; i < bbox_count * 4; ++i) {
                    bbox_verts_flat.push_back(geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].x);
                    bbox_verts_flat.push_back(geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].y);
                    bbox_verts_flat.push_back(geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].z);
                }
                bbox_vertices_buffer = createBuffer(bbox_verts_flat.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                uploadBufferData(bbox_vertices_buffer, bbox_verts_flat.data(), bbox_verts_flat.size() * sizeof(float));
 
                // Compute domain bounds from all bbox vertices (min/max across all faces)
                float xmin = 1e30f, xmax = -1e30f, ymin = 1e30f, ymax = -1e30f;
                for (size_t i = 0; i < bbox_count * 4; ++i) {
                    xmin = std::min(xmin, geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].x);
                    xmax = std::max(xmax, geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].x);
                    ymin = std::min(ymin, geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].y);
                    ymax = std::max(ymax, geometry.bboxes.vertices[i].y);
                }
                domain_bounds[0] = xmin;
                domain_bounds[1] = xmax;
                domain_bounds[2] = ymin;
                domain_bounds[3] = ymax;
            } else {
                // No bboxes - create placeholder buffer
                bbox_vertices_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                domain_bounds[0] = domain_bounds[1] = domain_bounds[2] = domain_bounds[3] = 0.f;
            }
        }
 
        descriptors_dirty = true; // Geometry changed, need descriptor update
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::buildAccelerationStructure() {
        // No-op: BVH is built in updateGeometry()
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::updateMaterials(const RayTracingMaterial &materials) {
        band_count = materials.num_bands;
 
        if (primitive_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry uploaded yet
        }
 
        // Material buffers are indexed as [source * Nbands * Nprims + band * Nprims + prim]
        // Use materials.num_sources for validation (source_count may not be set yet if updateSources hasn't been called)
        size_t expected_size = materials.num_sources * band_count * primitive_count;
 
        // Upload reflectivity buffer
        if (!materials.reflectivity.empty()) {
            if (materials.reflectivity.size() != expected_size) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateMaterials): reflectivity size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(expected_size) + " entries (Nsources * Nprims * Nbands), got " +
                                     std::to_string(materials.reflectivity.size()));
            }
 
            if (reflectivity_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(reflectivity_buffer);
            }
            reflectivity_buffer = createBuffer(materials.reflectivity.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(reflectivity_buffer, materials.reflectivity.data(), materials.reflectivity.size() * sizeof(float));
        }
 
        // Upload transmissivity buffer
        if (!materials.transmissivity.empty()) {
            if (materials.transmissivity.size() != expected_size) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateMaterials): transmissivity size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(expected_size) + " entries (Nsources * Nprims * Nbands), got " +
                                     std::to_string(materials.transmissivity.size()));
            }
 
            if (transmissivity_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(transmissivity_buffer);
            }
            transmissivity_buffer = createBuffer(materials.transmissivity.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(transmissivity_buffer, materials.transmissivity.data(), materials.transmissivity.size() * sizeof(float));
        }
 
        // Upload specular exponent buffer (per primitive)
        if (!materials.specular_exponent.empty()) {
            if (materials.specular_exponent.size() != primitive_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateMaterials): specular_exponent size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(primitive_count) + " entries (Nprims), got " + std::to_string(materials.specular_exponent.size()));
            }
 
            if (specular_exponent_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(specular_exponent_buffer);
            }
            specular_exponent_buffer = createBuffer(materials.specular_exponent.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(specular_exponent_buffer, materials.specular_exponent.data(), materials.specular_exponent.size() * sizeof(float));
        }
 
        // Upload specular scale buffer (per primitive)
        if (!materials.specular_scale.empty()) {
            if (materials.specular_scale.size() != primitive_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateMaterials): specular_scale size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(primitive_count) + " entries (Nprims), got " + std::to_string(materials.specular_scale.size()));
            }
 
            if (specular_scale_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(specular_scale_buffer);
            }
            specular_scale_buffer = createBuffer(materials.specular_scale.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(specular_scale_buffer, materials.specular_scale.data(), materials.specular_scale.size() * sizeof(float));
        }
 
        // Upload translucent cover (glass/plastic) buffers. Same source-dimensioned layout as rho/tau;
        // the shaders index the source-0 slice (glass properties are source-independent). The is_glass
        // flag (char on host) is widened to uint for GPU access, matching the twosided_flags pattern.
        if (!materials.is_glass.empty()) {
            if (materials.is_glass.size() != expected_size) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::updateMaterials): is_glass size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(expected_size) + " entries (Nsources * Nprims * Nbands), got " +
                                     std::to_string(materials.is_glass.size()));
            }
            // Fail fast if the band count exceeds the per-thread cover-transmittance accumulator size
            // (cover_tau[GLASS_MAX_BANDS] in the raygen shaders); otherwise glass attenuation would be
            // silently dropped for bands >= GLASS_MAX_BANDS. Only enforced when glass is actually in use,
            // mirroring the OptiX 8/6 backends.
            bool any_glass = false;
            for (char g: materials.is_glass) {
                if (g != 0) {
                    any_glass = true;
                    break;
                }
            }
            constexpr size_t glass_max_bands = 32; // must match GLASS_MAX_BANDS / HELIOS_MAX_RADIATION_BANDS
            if (any_glass && materials.num_bands > glass_max_bands) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend): translucent cover (glass) materials are in use with " + std::to_string(materials.num_bands) + " radiation bands, which exceeds the compile-time maximum of " +
                                     std::to_string(glass_max_bands) + " (GLASS_MAX_BANDS). Reduce the number of bands or increase the cap.");
            }
            std::vector<uint> is_glass_uint(materials.is_glass.begin(), materials.is_glass.end());
            if (is_glass_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) { destroyBuffer(is_glass_buffer); }
            is_glass_buffer = createBuffer(is_glass_uint.size() * sizeof(uint), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(is_glass_buffer, is_glass_uint.data(), is_glass_uint.size() * sizeof(uint));
 
            if (glass_n_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) { destroyBuffer(glass_n_buffer); }
            glass_n_buffer = createBuffer(materials.glass_n.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(glass_n_buffer, materials.glass_n.data(), materials.glass_n.size() * sizeof(float));
 
            if (glass_KL_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) { destroyBuffer(glass_KL_buffer); }
            glass_KL_buffer = createBuffer(materials.glass_KL.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            uploadBufferData(glass_KL_buffer, materials.glass_KL.data(), materials.glass_KL.size() * sizeof(float));
        }
 
        descriptors_dirty = true; // Materials changed, need descriptor update
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::updateSources(const std::vector<RayTracingSource> &sources) {
        source_count = sources.size();
 
        if (source_count == 0) {
            return; // No sources
        }
 
        // Extract source data from structs
        std::vector<helios::vec3> positions;
        std::vector<uint> types;
        std::vector<helios::vec3> rotations;
        std::vector<helios::vec2> widths;
 
        positions.reserve(source_count);
        types.reserve(source_count);
        rotations.reserve(source_count);
        widths.reserve(source_count);
 
        for (const auto &source: sources) {
            positions.push_back(source.position);
            types.push_back(source.type);
            rotations.push_back(source.rotation);
            widths.push_back(source.width);
        }
 
        // Upload source positions
        if (source_positions_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            destroyBuffer(source_positions_buffer);
        }
        source_positions_buffer = createBuffer(positions.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uploadBufferData(source_positions_buffer, positions.data(), positions.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3));
 
        // Upload source types
        if (source_types_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            destroyBuffer(source_types_buffer);
        }
        source_types_buffer = createBuffer(types.size() * sizeof(uint), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uploadBufferData(source_types_buffer, types.data(), types.size() * sizeof(uint));
 
        // Upload source rotations
        if (source_rotations_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            destroyBuffer(source_rotations_buffer);
        }
        source_rotations_buffer = createBuffer(rotations.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uploadBufferData(source_rotations_buffer, rotations.data(), rotations.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3));
 
        // Upload source widths
        if (source_widths_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            destroyBuffer(source_widths_buffer);
        }
        source_widths_buffer = createBuffer(widths.size() * sizeof(helios::vec2), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uploadBufferData(source_widths_buffer, widths.data(), widths.size() * sizeof(helios::vec2));
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::updateDiffuseRadiation(const std::vector<float> &flux, const std::vector<float> &extinction, const std::vector<helios::vec3> &peak_dir, const std::vector<float> &dist_norm, const std::vector<float> &sky_energy) {
        // Intentional no-op: the Vulkan backend uploads diffuse radiation parameters directly
        // in launchDiffuseRays() from the RayTracingLaunchParams struct, rather than caching
        // them here. This method is required by the RayTracingBackend interface but is not
        // called by RadiationModel.
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::updateSkyModel(const std::vector<helios::vec4> &sky_radiance_params, const std::vector<float> &camera_sky_radiance, const helios::vec3 &sun_direction, const std::vector<float> &solar_disk_radiance,
                                              float solar_disk_cos_angle, const std::vector<float> &camera_diffuse_flux, const std::vector<uint32_t> &band_emission_flag) {
        // Store sun parameters for push constants
        cached_sun_direction = sun_direction;
        cached_solar_disk_cos_angle = solar_disk_cos_angle;
 
        // Upload sky_radiance_params to existing buffer (already used by diffuse shader)
        if (!sky_radiance_params.empty()) {
            size_t params_size = sky_radiance_params.size() * sizeof(helios::vec4);
            if (sky_radiance_params_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || sky_radiance_params_buffer.size != params_size) {
                if (sky_radiance_params_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(sky_radiance_params_buffer);
                }
                sky_radiance_params_buffer = createBuffer(params_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(sky_radiance_params_buffer, sky_radiance_params.data(), params_size);
        }
 
        // Upload camera_sky_radiance (zenith sky radiance for camera miss shader)
        if (!camera_sky_radiance.empty()) {
            size_t sky_size = camera_sky_radiance.size() * sizeof(float);
            if (camera_sky_radiance_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_sky_radiance_buffer.size != sky_size) {
                if (camera_sky_radiance_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(camera_sky_radiance_buffer);
                }
                camera_sky_radiance_buffer = createBuffer(sky_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(camera_sky_radiance_buffer, camera_sky_radiance.data(), sky_size);
        }
 
        // Upload solar_disk_radiance (solar disk radiance for camera miss shader)
        if (!solar_disk_radiance.empty()) {
            size_t solar_size = solar_disk_radiance.size() * sizeof(float);
            if (solar_disk_radiance_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || solar_disk_radiance_buffer.size != solar_size) {
                if (solar_disk_radiance_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(solar_disk_radiance_buffer);
                }
                solar_disk_radiance_buffer = createBuffer(solar_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(solar_disk_radiance_buffer, solar_disk_radiance.data(), solar_size);
        }
 
        // Upload camera_diffuse_flux (per-band hemispherical sky flux for emission/longwave camera miss)
        if (!camera_diffuse_flux.empty()) {
            size_t flux_size = camera_diffuse_flux.size() * sizeof(float);
            if (camera_diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_diffuse_flux_buffer.size != flux_size) {
                if (camera_diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(camera_diffuse_flux_buffer);
                }
                camera_diffuse_flux_buffer = createBuffer(flux_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(camera_diffuse_flux_buffer, camera_diffuse_flux.data(), flux_size);
        }
 
        // Upload band_emission_flag (per-band, gates camera diffuse-flux sky sampling)
        if (!band_emission_flag.empty()) {
            size_t flag_size = band_emission_flag.size() * sizeof(uint32_t);
            if (band_emission_flag_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || band_emission_flag_buffer.size != flag_size) {
                if (band_emission_flag_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(band_emission_flag_buffer);
                }
                band_emission_flag_buffer = createBuffer(flag_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(band_emission_flag_buffer, band_emission_flag.data(), flag_size);
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::launchDirectRays(const RayTracingLaunchParams &params) {
        if (primitive_count == 0 || source_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry or sources
        }
 
        // Build band mapping (same logic as diffuse)
        launch_to_global_band.clear();
        for (uint32_t g = 0; g < band_count; g++) {
            if (!params.band_launch_flag.empty() && params.band_launch_flag[g]) {
                launch_to_global_band.push_back(g);
            }
        }
        if (launch_to_global_band.empty()) {
            for (uint32_t g = 0; g < launch_band_count; g++) {
                launch_to_global_band.push_back(g);
            }
        }
 
        // Upload band mapping to GPU buffer
        uploadBufferData(band_map_buffer, launch_to_global_band.data(), launch_to_global_band.size() * sizeof(uint32_t));
 
        // Ensure scatter and radiation_out buffers exist (direct shader writes scatter buffers)
        size_t buf_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count * sizeof(float);
        VkBufferUsageFlags scatter_usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
 
        if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || scatter_top_buffer.size != buf_size) {
            if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
            }
            scatter_top_buffer = createBuffer(buf_size, scatter_usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
        if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || scatter_bottom_buffer.size != buf_size) {
            if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
            }
            scatter_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buf_size, scatter_usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Ensure radiation_out buffers exist (needed for descriptor set completeness)
        VkBufferUsageFlags rad_out_usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
        if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_top_buffer.size != buf_size) {
            if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
            }
            radiation_out_top_buffer = createBuffer(buf_size, rad_out_usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
        if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_bottom_buffer.size != buf_size) {
            if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
            }
            radiation_out_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buf_size, rad_out_usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Zero scatter buffers before each direct launch (runBand does not zero them before direct)
        zeroBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
        zeroBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
 
        // Update descriptor sets only if buffers changed
        if (descriptors_dirty) {
            updateDescriptorSets();
            descriptors_dirty = false;
        }
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // Record COMPUTE command buffer
        VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
        begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
        begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
        vkBeginCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
        // Bind pipeline
        vkCmdBindPipeline(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_direct);
 
        // Bind descriptor sets
        VkDescriptorSet sets[] = {set_geometry, set_materials, set_results};
        vkCmdBindDescriptorSets(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_layout, 0, 3, sets, 0, nullptr);
 
        // Push constants (expanded for 3D dispatch with 2D primitive tiling)
        struct PushConstants {
            uint launch_offset;
            uint launch_count;
            uint rays_per_primitive;
            uint random_seed;
            uint current_band;
            uint band_count;
            uint source_count;
            uint primitive_count;
            uint debug_mode; // 1 = enable bounds checking, 0 = production
            uint launch_dim_x; // Grid dimension X for stratified sampling
            uint launch_dim_y; // Grid dimension Y for stratified sampling
            uint prim_tiles_y; // Number of primitive tiles in Y dimension
            uint prims_per_tile; // Primitives per tile (65535 max)
            uint material_band_count; // Global band count (for material buffers)
            uint periodic_flag_x; // 1 if periodic in X direction
            uint periodic_flag_y; // 1 if periodic in Y direction
            uint bbox_count; // Number of bbox faces (0-4)
            float domain_xmin; // Domain bounds for periodic wrapping
            float domain_xmax;
            float domain_ymin;
            float domain_ymax;
            uint specular_reflection_enabled; // 0=disabled, 1=default scale, 2=user scale
        } push_constants;
 
        // Compute 2D grid dimensions for stratified sampling (matches OptiX)
        uint32_t launch_dim_x = static_cast<uint32_t>(std::ceil(std::sqrt(static_cast<double>(params.rays_per_primitive))));
        uint32_t launch_dim_y = launch_dim_x;
 
        push_constants.launch_offset = params.launch_offset;
        push_constants.launch_count = params.launch_count;
        push_constants.rays_per_primitive = params.rays_per_primitive;
        push_constants.random_seed = params.random_seed;
        push_constants.current_band = params.current_band;
        push_constants.band_count = launch_band_count; // Use launch band count (not global)
        push_constants.source_count = source_count;
        push_constants.primitive_count = primitive_count;
        push_constants.launch_dim_x = launch_dim_x;
        push_constants.launch_dim_y = launch_dim_y;
        push_constants.material_band_count = band_count; // Global band count for material indexing
 
// Enable debug bounds checking (can be disabled in production builds)
#ifdef HELIOS_DEBUG
        push_constants.debug_mode = 1;
#else
        push_constants.debug_mode = 0;
#endif
 
        // Periodic boundary parameters
        push_constants.periodic_flag_x = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_x);
        push_constants.periodic_flag_y = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_y);
        push_constants.bbox_count = bbox_count;
        push_constants.domain_xmin = domain_bounds[0];
        push_constants.domain_xmax = domain_bounds[1];
        push_constants.domain_ymin = domain_bounds[2];
        push_constants.domain_ymax = domain_bounds[3];
        push_constants.specular_reflection_enabled = params.specular_reflection_enabled;
 
        // 3D dispatch with 2D primitive tiling to avoid sub-batching
        // Tile primitives into Y dimension when count exceeds 65535 to use full Vulkan dispatch space
        const uint32_t WG_X = 8; // Must match shader local_size_x
        const uint32_t WG_Y = 32; // Must match shader local_size_y
        const uint32_t MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE = 65535;
 
        uint32_t dispatch_x = (launch_dim_x + WG_X - 1) / WG_X;
        uint32_t dispatch_y_rays = (launch_dim_y + WG_Y - 1) / WG_Y;
 
        // Compute primitive tiling
        uint32_t prims_per_tile = std::min(params.launch_count, MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE);
        uint32_t prim_tiles_y = (params.launch_count + MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE - 1) / MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE;
 
        uint32_t dispatch_y = dispatch_y_rays * prim_tiles_y;
        uint32_t dispatch_z = prims_per_tile;
 
        push_constants.prim_tiles_y = prim_tiles_y;
        push_constants.prims_per_tile = prims_per_tile;
 
        vkCmdPushConstants(compute_command_buffer, pipeline_layout, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, 0, sizeof(PushConstants), &push_constants);
        vkCmdDispatch(compute_command_buffer, dispatch_x, dispatch_y, dispatch_z);
 
        // Buffer memory barrier to ensure storage buffer writes are visible for readback
        // CRITICAL: Use buffer-specific barrier instead of global barrier for MoltenVK compatibility
        VkBufferMemoryBarrier buffer_barriers[3];
 
        // Radiation_in buffer barrier
        buffer_barriers[0].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        buffer_barriers[0].pNext = nullptr;
        buffer_barriers[0].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        buffer_barriers[0].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        buffer_barriers[0].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        buffer_barriers[0].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        buffer_barriers[0].buffer = radiation_in_buffer.buffer;
        buffer_barriers[0].offset = 0;
        buffer_barriers[0].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        // Scatter_top buffer barrier (direct shader writes scatter)
        buffer_barriers[1].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        buffer_barriers[1].pNext = nullptr;
        buffer_barriers[1].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        buffer_barriers[1].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        buffer_barriers[1].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        buffer_barriers[1].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        buffer_barriers[1].buffer = scatter_top_buffer.buffer;
        buffer_barriers[1].offset = 0;
        buffer_barriers[1].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        // Scatter_bottom buffer barrier
        buffer_barriers[2].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        buffer_barriers[2].pNext = nullptr;
        buffer_barriers[2].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        buffer_barriers[2].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        buffer_barriers[2].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        buffer_barriers[2].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        buffer_barriers[2].buffer = scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer;
        buffer_barriers[2].offset = 0;
        buffer_barriers[2].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        vkCmdPipelineBarrier(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, 0, 0, nullptr, // No global memory barriers
                             3, buffer_barriers, // Buffer-specific barriers
                             0, nullptr); // No image barriers
 
        vkEndCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer);
 
        // Submit command buffer with COMPUTE fence
        VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
        submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
        submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
        submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &compute_command_buffer;
 
        vkResetFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence);
        VkResult result = vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, compute_fence);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchDirectRays): vkQueueSubmit failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        // Wait for compute to complete (no timeout - large scenes can take minutes)
        VkResult wait_result;
        do {
            wait_result = vkWaitForFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence, VK_TRUE, 1000000000ULL);
            if (wait_result != VK_SUCCESS && wait_result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchDirectRays): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(wait_result));
            }
        } while (wait_result == VK_TIMEOUT);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::launchDiffuseRays(const RayTracingLaunchParams &params) {
        if (primitive_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry
        }
 
        // Ensure radiation_out_top/bottom buffers exist (required by shader)
        size_t rad_out_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count * sizeof(float);
        if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_top_buffer.size != rad_out_size) {
            if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_out_top_buffer = createBuffer(rad_out_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_bottom_buffer.size != rad_out_size) {
            if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_out_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(rad_out_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Ensure scatter_top/bottom buffers exist (required by shader and barriers)
        if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || scatter_top_buffer.size != rad_out_size) {
            if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            scatter_top_buffer = createBuffer(rad_out_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
        if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || scatter_bottom_buffer.size != rad_out_size) {
            if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            scatter_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(rad_out_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Upload radiation_out_top and radiation_out_bottom if provided
        if (!params.radiation_out_top.empty() && !params.radiation_out_bottom.empty()) {
            uploadRadiationOut(params.radiation_out_top, params.radiation_out_bottom);
        }
 
        // Upload diffuse sky parameters
        if (!params.diffuse_flux.empty()) {
            // Diffuse flux buffer
            size_t flux_size = params.diffuse_flux.size() * sizeof(float);
            if (diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || diffuse_flux_buffer.size != flux_size) {
                if (diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(diffuse_flux_buffer);
                }
                diffuse_flux_buffer = createBuffer(flux_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(diffuse_flux_buffer, params.diffuse_flux.data(), flux_size);
        }
 
        if (!params.diffuse_peak_dir.empty()) {
            // Diffuse peak direction buffer
            size_t peak_dir_size = params.diffuse_peak_dir.size() * sizeof(helios::vec3);
            if (diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.size != peak_dir_size) {
                if (diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(diffuse_peak_dir_buffer);
                }
                diffuse_peak_dir_buffer = createBuffer(peak_dir_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(diffuse_peak_dir_buffer, params.diffuse_peak_dir.data(), peak_dir_size);
        }
 
        if (!params.diffuse_extinction.empty()) {
            // Diffuse extinction buffer
            size_t extinction_size = params.diffuse_extinction.size() * sizeof(float);
            if (diffuse_extinction_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || diffuse_extinction_buffer.size != extinction_size) {
                if (diffuse_extinction_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(diffuse_extinction_buffer);
                }
                diffuse_extinction_buffer = createBuffer(extinction_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(diffuse_extinction_buffer, params.diffuse_extinction.data(), extinction_size);
        }
 
        if (!params.diffuse_dist_norm.empty()) {
            // Diffuse distribution normalization buffer
            size_t dist_norm_size = params.diffuse_dist_norm.size() * sizeof(float);
            if (diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.size != dist_norm_size) {
                if (diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(diffuse_dist_norm_buffer);
                }
                diffuse_dist_norm_buffer = createBuffer(dist_norm_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
                descriptors_dirty = true;
            }
            uploadBufferData(diffuse_dist_norm_buffer, params.diffuse_dist_norm.data(), dist_norm_size);
        }
 
        // Ensure all sky parameter buffers exist (required by shader even if empty/zero)
        // Only create if null - don't resize (that's handled by upload sections above)
        if (diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            size_t flux_size = band_count * sizeof(float);
            diffuse_flux_buffer = createBuffer(flux_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(diffuse_flux_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        if (diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            size_t peak_dir_size = band_count * sizeof(helios::vec3);
            diffuse_peak_dir_buffer = createBuffer(peak_dir_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(diffuse_peak_dir_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        if (diffuse_extinction_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            size_t extinction_size = band_count * sizeof(float);
            diffuse_extinction_buffer = createBuffer(extinction_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(diffuse_extinction_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        if (diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            size_t dist_norm_size = band_count * sizeof(float);
            diffuse_dist_norm_buffer = createBuffer(dist_norm_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(diffuse_dist_norm_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Sky radiance params (Prague model) - always recreate with current data
        {
            size_t sky_params_size = launch_band_count * sizeof(helios::vec4);
            if (sky_radiance_params_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(sky_radiance_params_buffer);
            }
            sky_radiance_params_buffer = createBuffer(sky_params_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
            if (!params.sky_radiance_params.empty() && params.sky_radiance_params.size() == launch_band_count) {
                uploadBufferData(sky_radiance_params_buffer, params.sky_radiance_params.data(), sky_params_size);
            } else {
                zeroBuffer(sky_radiance_params_buffer);
            }
        }
 
        // Create debug counters buffer if needed (5 uint32_t counters)
        // MUST be before descriptor update check
        if (debug_counters_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            debug_counters_buffer = createBuffer(5 * sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            zeroBuffer(debug_counters_buffer);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        } else {
            // Zero counters before each dispatch
            zeroBuffer(debug_counters_buffer);
        }
 
        // Update descriptor sets only if buffers changed
        if (descriptors_dirty) {
            updateDescriptorSets();
            descriptors_dirty = false;
        }
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // Compute 2D grid dimensions for stratified hemisphere sampling (matches OptiX: ceil(sqrt(rays_per_primitive)))
        uint32_t launch_dim_x = static_cast<uint32_t>(std::ceil(std::sqrt(static_cast<double>(params.rays_per_primitive))));
        uint32_t launch_dim_y = launch_dim_x;
 
        // Use the launch_face specified by the caller (RadiationModel already loops over faces)
        uint32_t launch_face = params.launch_face;
 
        // Build band mapping: launch band index → global band index
        launch_to_global_band.clear();
        for (uint32_t g = 0; g < band_count; g++) {
            if (!params.band_launch_flag.empty() && params.band_launch_flag[g]) {
                launch_to_global_band.push_back(g);
            }
        }
        if (launch_to_global_band.empty()) {
            // Fallback: identity mapping (all bands active)
            for (uint32_t g = 0; g < launch_band_count; g++) {
                launch_to_global_band.push_back(g);
            }
        }
 
        // Upload band mapping to GPU buffer
        uploadBufferData(band_map_buffer, launch_to_global_band.data(), launch_to_global_band.size() * sizeof(uint32_t));
 
        // Push constants struct (expanded for diffuse rays)
        struct PushConstants {
            uint32_t launch_offset;
            uint32_t launch_count;
            uint32_t rays_per_primitive;
            uint32_t random_seed;
            uint32_t band_count;
            uint32_t source_count;
            uint32_t primitive_count;
            uint32_t launch_face; // 0 = bottom, 1 = top
            uint32_t launch_dim_x; // Grid dimension X
            uint32_t launch_dim_y; // Grid dimension Y
            uint32_t material_band_count; // Global band count (for material buffers)
            uint32_t periodic_flag_x; // 1 if periodic in X direction
            uint32_t periodic_flag_y; // 1 if periodic in Y direction
            uint32_t bbox_count; // Number of bbox faces (0-4)
            float domain_xmin; // Domain bounds for periodic wrapping
            float domain_xmax;
            float domain_ymin;
            float domain_ymax;
            uint32_t prim_tiles_y; // Number of primitive tiles in Y dimension
            uint32_t prims_per_tile; // Primitives per tile (65535 max)
        } push_constants;
 
        // Initialize invariant push constants
        push_constants.rays_per_primitive = params.rays_per_primitive;
        push_constants.random_seed = params.random_seed;
        push_constants.band_count = launch_band_count; // Use launch band count (not global)
        push_constants.material_band_count = band_count; // Global band count for material indexing
        push_constants.source_count = source_count;
        push_constants.primitive_count = primitive_count;
        push_constants.launch_face = launch_face;
        push_constants.launch_dim_x = launch_dim_x;
        push_constants.launch_dim_y = launch_dim_y;
 
        // Periodic boundary parameters
        push_constants.periodic_flag_x = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_x);
        push_constants.periodic_flag_y = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_y);
        push_constants.bbox_count = bbox_count;
        push_constants.domain_xmin = domain_bounds[0];
        push_constants.domain_xmax = domain_bounds[1];
        push_constants.domain_ymin = domain_bounds[2];
        push_constants.domain_ymax = domain_bounds[3];
 
        // 3D dispatch with 2D primitive tiling to avoid exceeding Vulkan maxComputeWorkGroupCount[2] = 65535
        // Tile primitives into Y dimension when count exceeds 65535, matching the direct shader approach
        const uint32_t WG_X = 8; // Must match shader local_size_x
        const uint32_t WG_Y = 32; // Must match shader local_size_y
        const uint32_t MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE = 65535;
 
        uint32_t dispatch_x = (launch_dim_x + WG_X - 1) / WG_X;
        uint32_t dispatch_y_rays = (launch_dim_y + WG_Y - 1) / WG_Y;
 
        // Compute primitive tiling
        uint32_t prims_per_tile = std::min(params.launch_count, MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE);
        uint32_t prim_tiles_y = (params.launch_count + MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE - 1) / MAX_PRIMS_PER_TILE;
 
        uint32_t dispatch_y = dispatch_y_rays * prim_tiles_y;
        uint32_t dispatch_z = prims_per_tile;
 
        push_constants.launch_offset = params.launch_offset;
        push_constants.launch_count = params.launch_count;
        push_constants.prim_tiles_y = prim_tiles_y;
        push_constants.prims_per_tile = prims_per_tile;
 
        {
            // Record COMPUTE command buffer
            VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
            begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
            begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
            vkBeginCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
            // Reset timestamp queries for this command buffer
            vkCmdResetQueryPool(compute_command_buffer, timestamp_query_pool, 0, 2);
 
            // Bind pipeline
            vkCmdBindPipeline(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_diffuse);
 
            // Bind descriptor sets (geometry, materials, results, sky, debug)
            VkDescriptorSet sets[] = {set_geometry, set_materials, set_results, set_sky, set_debug};
            vkCmdBindDescriptorSets(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_layout, 0, 5, sets, 0, nullptr);
 
            // Write timestamp before dispatch (measures GPU start time)
            vkCmdWriteTimestamp(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, timestamp_query_pool, 0);
 
            // Single dispatch — all primitives via 2D tiling, all bands handled inside shader
            vkCmdPushConstants(compute_command_buffer, pipeline_layout, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, 0, sizeof(PushConstants), &push_constants);
            vkCmdDispatch(compute_command_buffer, dispatch_x, dispatch_y, dispatch_z);
 
            // Write timestamp after dispatch (measures GPU end time)
            vkCmdWriteTimestamp(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, timestamp_query_pool, 1);
 
            // Final buffer memory barriers to ensure storage buffer writes are visible
            VkBufferMemoryBarrier buffer_barriers[4];
 
            // Radiation_in buffer barrier
            buffer_barriers[0].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
            buffer_barriers[0].pNext = nullptr;
            buffer_barriers[0].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[0].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[0].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[0].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[0].buffer = radiation_in_buffer.buffer;
            buffer_barriers[0].offset = 0;
            buffer_barriers[0].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
            // Scatter_top buffer barrier
            buffer_barriers[1].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
            buffer_barriers[1].pNext = nullptr;
            buffer_barriers[1].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[1].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[1].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[1].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[1].buffer = scatter_top_buffer.buffer;
            buffer_barriers[1].offset = 0;
            buffer_barriers[1].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
            // Scatter_bottom buffer barrier
            buffer_barriers[2].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
            buffer_barriers[2].pNext = nullptr;
            buffer_barriers[2].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[2].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[2].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[2].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[2].buffer = scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer;
            buffer_barriers[2].offset = 0;
            buffer_barriers[2].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
            // Radiation_out_top buffer barrier (read-only for diffuse rays)
            buffer_barriers[3].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
            buffer_barriers[3].pNext = nullptr;
            buffer_barriers[3].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[3].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT;
            buffer_barriers[3].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[3].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
            buffer_barriers[3].buffer = radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer;
            buffer_barriers[3].offset = 0;
            buffer_barriers[3].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
            vkCmdPipelineBarrier(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, 0, 0, nullptr, // No global memory barriers
                                 4, buffer_barriers, // Buffer-specific barriers
                                 0, nullptr); // No image barriers
 
            vkEndCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer);
 
            // Submit command buffer with COMPUTE fence
            VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
            submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
            submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
            submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &compute_command_buffer;
 
            vkResetFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence);
            VkResult result = vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, compute_fence);
            if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchDiffuseRays): vkQueueSubmit failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
            }
 
            // Wait for compute to complete (no timeout - large scenes can take minutes)
            VkResult wait_result;
            do {
                wait_result = vkWaitForFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence, VK_TRUE, 1000000000ULL);
                if (wait_result != VK_SUCCESS && wait_result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                    helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchDiffuseRays): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(wait_result));
                }
            } while (wait_result == VK_TIMEOUT);
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::launchCameraRays(const RayTracingLaunchParams &params) {
        if (primitive_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry
        }
 
        // Build band mapping (same logic as direct/diffuse)
        launch_to_global_band.clear();
        for (uint32_t g = 0; g < band_count; g++) {
            if (!params.band_launch_flag.empty() && params.band_launch_flag[g]) {
                launch_to_global_band.push_back(g);
            }
        }
        if (launch_to_global_band.empty()) {
            for (uint32_t g = 0; g < launch_band_count; g++) {
                launch_to_global_band.push_back(g);
            }
        }
 
        // Ensure camera_radiation_buffer exists at FULL resolution
        size_t total_pixels = size_t(params.camera_resolution_full.x) * size_t(params.camera_resolution_full.y);
        size_t radiation_size = total_pixels * launch_band_count * sizeof(float);
        if (camera_radiation_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_radiation_buffer.size != radiation_size) {
            if (camera_radiation_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_radiation_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_radiation_buffer = createBuffer(radiation_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Zero camera radiation buffer before tile loop (matches OptiX line 713)
        // CRITICAL: Only zero if this is the first tile (pixel_offset == 0,0)
        // Subsequent tiles accumulate into the same buffer
        if (params.camera_pixel_offset.x == 0 && params.camera_pixel_offset.y == 0) {
            zeroBuffer(camera_radiation_buffer);
        }
 
        // Update descriptor sets if buffers changed
        if (descriptors_dirty) {
            updateDescriptorSets();
            descriptors_dirty = false;
        }
 
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // Record COMPUTE command buffer
        VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
        begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
        begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
        vkBeginCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
        // Bind pipeline
        vkCmdBindPipeline(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_camera);
 
        // Bind descriptor sets
        VkDescriptorSet sets[] = {set_geometry, set_materials, set_results, set_sky, set_debug};
        vkCmdBindDescriptorSets(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_layout, 0, 5, sets, 0, nullptr);
 
        // Build push constants
        struct PushConstants {
            helios::vec3 camera_position; // 12 bytes
            float viewplane_length; // 4 bytes
            float camera_direction_x; // 4 bytes
            float camera_direction_y; // 4 bytes
            float focal_length; // 4 bytes
            float lens_diameter; // 4 bytes
            float fov_aspect_ratio; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t resolution_x; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t resolution_y; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t resolution_full_x; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t resolution_full_y; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t pixel_offset_x; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t pixel_offset_y; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t antialiasing_samples; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t random_seed; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t band_count; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t source_count; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t primitive_count; // 4 bytes
            helios::vec3 sun_direction; // 12 bytes
            float solar_disk_cos_angle; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t periodic_flag_x; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t periodic_flag_y; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t bbox_count; // 4 bytes
            float domain_xmin; // 4 bytes
            float domain_xmax; // 4 bytes
            float domain_ymin; // 4 bytes
            float domain_ymax; // 4 bytes
            uint32_t specular_reflection_enabled; // 4 bytes
        } push_constants{}; // Total: 128 bytes
 
        push_constants.camera_position = params.camera_position;
        push_constants.viewplane_length = params.camera_viewplane_length;
        push_constants.camera_direction_x = params.camera_direction.x;
        push_constants.camera_direction_y = params.camera_direction.y;
        push_constants.focal_length = params.camera_focal_length;
        push_constants.lens_diameter = params.camera_lens_diameter;
        push_constants.fov_aspect_ratio = params.camera_fov_aspect;
        push_constants.resolution_x = params.camera_resolution.x;
        push_constants.resolution_y = params.camera_resolution.y;
        push_constants.resolution_full_x = params.camera_resolution_full.x;
        push_constants.resolution_full_y = params.camera_resolution_full.y;
        push_constants.pixel_offset_x = params.camera_pixel_offset.x;
        push_constants.pixel_offset_y = params.camera_pixel_offset.y;
        push_constants.antialiasing_samples = params.antialiasing_samples;
        push_constants.random_seed = params.random_seed;
        push_constants.band_count = launch_band_count;
        push_constants.source_count = source_count;
        push_constants.primitive_count = primitive_count;
        push_constants.sun_direction = cached_sun_direction;
        push_constants.solar_disk_cos_angle = cached_solar_disk_cos_angle;
        push_constants.periodic_flag_x = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_x);
        push_constants.periodic_flag_y = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_y);
        push_constants.bbox_count = bbox_count;
        push_constants.domain_xmin = domain_bounds[0];
        push_constants.domain_xmax = domain_bounds[1];
        push_constants.domain_ymin = domain_bounds[2];
        push_constants.domain_ymax = domain_bounds[3];
        push_constants.specular_reflection_enabled = params.specular_reflection_enabled;
 
        vkCmdPushConstants(compute_command_buffer, pipeline_layout, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, 0, sizeof(PushConstants), &push_constants);
 
        // Compute dispatch dimensions (workgroup size 16x16x1)
        const uint32_t WG_X = 16;
        const uint32_t WG_Y = 16;
        uint32_t dispatch_x = (params.camera_resolution.x + WG_X - 1) / WG_X;
        uint32_t dispatch_y = (params.camera_resolution.y + WG_Y - 1) / WG_Y;
        uint32_t dispatch_z = params.antialiasing_samples;
 
        vkCmdDispatch(compute_command_buffer, dispatch_x, dispatch_y, dispatch_z);
 
        // Buffer memory barrier for camera_radiation_buffer
        VkBufferMemoryBarrier barrier{};
        barrier.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        barrier.srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        barrier.dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        barrier.srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barrier.dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barrier.buffer = camera_radiation_buffer.buffer;
        barrier.offset = 0;
        barrier.size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        vkCmdPipelineBarrier(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, 0, 0, nullptr, 1, &barrier, 0, nullptr);
 
        vkEndCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer);
 
        // Submit command buffer
        VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
        submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
        submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
        submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &compute_command_buffer;
 
        vkResetFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence);
        VkResult result = vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, compute_fence);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchCameraRays): vkQueueSubmit failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        // Wait for compute to complete (no timeout - large scenes can take minutes)
        VkResult wait_result;
        do {
            wait_result = vkWaitForFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence, VK_TRUE, 1000000000ULL);
            if (wait_result != VK_SUCCESS && wait_result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchCameraRays): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(wait_result));
            }
        } while (wait_result == VK_TIMEOUT);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::launchPixelLabelRays(const RayTracingLaunchParams &params) {
        if (primitive_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry
        }
 
        // Update descriptor sets if buffers changed
        if (descriptors_dirty) {
            updateDescriptorSets();
            descriptors_dirty = false;
        }
 
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // Record COMPUTE command buffer
        VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
        begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
        begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
        vkBeginCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
        // Bind pipeline
        vkCmdBindPipeline(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_pixel_label);
 
        // Bind descriptor sets
        VkDescriptorSet sets[] = {set_geometry, set_materials, set_results, set_sky, set_debug};
        vkCmdBindDescriptorSets(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_BIND_POINT_COMPUTE, pipeline_layout, 0, 5, sets, 0, nullptr);
 
        // Build push constants (same layout as camera_raygen)
        struct PushConstants {
            helios::vec3 camera_position;
            float viewplane_length;
            float camera_direction_x;
            float camera_direction_y;
            float focal_length;
            float lens_diameter;
            float fov_aspect_ratio;
            uint32_t resolution_x;
            uint32_t resolution_y;
            uint32_t resolution_full_x;
            uint32_t resolution_full_y;
            uint32_t pixel_offset_x;
            uint32_t pixel_offset_y;
            uint32_t antialiasing_samples;
            uint32_t random_seed;
            uint32_t band_count;
            uint32_t source_count;
            uint32_t primitive_count;
            helios::vec3 sun_direction;
            float solar_disk_cos_angle;
            uint32_t periodic_flag_x;
            uint32_t periodic_flag_y;
            uint32_t bbox_count;
            float domain_xmin;
            float domain_xmax;
            float domain_ymin;
            float domain_ymax;
            uint32_t padding;
        } push_constants{};
 
        push_constants.camera_position = params.camera_position;
        push_constants.viewplane_length = params.camera_viewplane_length;
        push_constants.camera_direction_x = params.camera_direction.x;
        push_constants.camera_direction_y = params.camera_direction.y;
        push_constants.focal_length = params.camera_focal_length;
        push_constants.lens_diameter = params.camera_lens_diameter;
        push_constants.fov_aspect_ratio = params.camera_fov_aspect;
        push_constants.resolution_x = params.camera_resolution.x;
        push_constants.resolution_y = params.camera_resolution.y;
        push_constants.resolution_full_x = params.camera_resolution_full.x;
        push_constants.resolution_full_y = params.camera_resolution_full.y;
        push_constants.pixel_offset_x = params.camera_pixel_offset.x;
        push_constants.pixel_offset_y = params.camera_pixel_offset.y;
        push_constants.antialiasing_samples = 1; // No AA for pixel label
        push_constants.random_seed = params.random_seed;
        push_constants.band_count = launch_band_count;
        push_constants.source_count = source_count;
        push_constants.primitive_count = primitive_count;
        push_constants.sun_direction = cached_sun_direction;
        push_constants.solar_disk_cos_angle = cached_solar_disk_cos_angle;
        push_constants.periodic_flag_x = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_x);
        push_constants.periodic_flag_y = static_cast<uint32_t>(periodic_flag_y);
        push_constants.bbox_count = bbox_count;
        push_constants.domain_xmin = domain_bounds[0];
        push_constants.domain_xmax = domain_bounds[1];
        push_constants.domain_ymin = domain_bounds[2];
        push_constants.domain_ymax = domain_bounds[3];
        push_constants.padding = 0;
 
        vkCmdPushConstants(compute_command_buffer, pipeline_layout, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, 0, sizeof(PushConstants), &push_constants);
 
        // Compute dispatch dimensions (workgroup size 16x16x1, no AA dimension)
        const uint32_t WG_X = 16;
        const uint32_t WG_Y = 16;
        uint32_t dispatch_x = (params.camera_resolution.x + WG_X - 1) / WG_X;
        uint32_t dispatch_y = (params.camera_resolution.y + WG_Y - 1) / WG_Y;
        uint32_t dispatch_z = 1; // No antialiasing
 
        vkCmdDispatch(compute_command_buffer, dispatch_x, dispatch_y, dispatch_z);
 
        // Buffer memory barriers for pixel label and depth buffers
        VkBufferMemoryBarrier barriers[2];
 
        barriers[0].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        barriers[0].pNext = nullptr;
        barriers[0].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        barriers[0].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        barriers[0].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barriers[0].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barriers[0].buffer = camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer;
        barriers[0].offset = 0;
        barriers[0].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        barriers[1].sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        barriers[1].pNext = nullptr;
        barriers[1].srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        barriers[1].dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        barriers[1].srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barriers[1].dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barriers[1].buffer = camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer;
        barriers[1].offset = 0;
        barriers[1].size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        vkCmdPipelineBarrier(compute_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT | VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, 0, 0, nullptr, 2, barriers, 0, nullptr);
 
        vkEndCommandBuffer(compute_command_buffer);
 
        // Submit command buffer
        VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
        submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
        submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
        submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &compute_command_buffer;
 
        vkResetFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence);
        VkResult result = vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, compute_fence);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchPixelLabelRays): vkQueueSubmit failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        // Wait for compute to complete (no timeout - large scenes can take minutes)
        VkResult wait_result;
        do {
            wait_result = vkWaitForFences(vk_device, 1, &compute_fence, VK_TRUE, 1000000000ULL);
            if (wait_result != VK_SUCCESS && wait_result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::launchPixelLabelRays): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(wait_result));
            }
        } while (wait_result == VK_TIMEOUT);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::getRadiationResults(RayTracingResults &results) {
        if (primitive_count == 0 || launch_band_count == 0) {
            return; // No results to download
        }
 
        size_t buffer_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count;
 
        // Resize output vectors
        results.radiation_in.resize(buffer_size);
        results.radiation_out_top.resize(buffer_size);
        results.radiation_out_bottom.resize(buffer_size);
        results.num_primitives = primitive_count;
        results.num_bands = launch_band_count;
 
        // Download radiation_in buffer
        if (radiation_in_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            // WORKAROUND for MoltenVK: Direct map instead of transfer command buffer
            // This works around coherency issues with compute shader writes
            vkQueueWaitIdle(device->getComputeQueue()); // Ensure compute is done
 
            void *mapped;
            VkResult result = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_in_buffer.allocation, &mapped);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                // Invalidate mapped memory range to ensure coherency with GPU writes
                // Use VMA's invalidate which handles nonCoherentAtomSize alignment automatically
                vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_in_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
 
                std::memcpy(results.radiation_in.data(), mapped, buffer_size * sizeof(float));
                vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_in_buffer.allocation);
 
                // Check for shader error codes (negative values)
                if (results.radiation_in[0] < 0.0f) {
                    std::string error_msg = "ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend): Compute shader reported error. Code: " + std::to_string(results.radiation_in[0]);
                    if (results.radiation_in[0] == -999.0f) {
                        error_msg += " (Invalid subdivisions: NX=" + std::to_string(results.radiation_in[1]) + " NY=" + std::to_string(results.radiation_in[2]) + ")";
                    } else if (results.radiation_in[0] == -998.0f) {
                        error_msg += " (Subdivisions too large: NX=" + std::to_string(results.radiation_in[1]) + " NY=" + std::to_string(results.radiation_in[2]) + ")";
                    } else if (results.radiation_in[0] == -997.0f) {
                        error_msg += " (Zero rays per dimension)";
                    } else if (results.radiation_in[0] == -996.0f) {
                        error_msg += " (Too many rays per dimension: " + std::to_string(results.radiation_in[1]) + ")";
                    }
                    helios_runtime_error(error_msg);
                }
 
            } else {
                downloadBufferData(radiation_in_buffer, results.radiation_in.data(), buffer_size * sizeof(float));
            }
        } else {
            std::fill(results.radiation_in.begin(), results.radiation_in.end(), 0.0f);
        }
 
        // Download radiation_out_top buffer
        if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            void *mapped;
            VkResult result = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation, &mapped);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
                std::memcpy(results.radiation_out_top.data(), mapped, buffer_size * sizeof(float));
                vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation);
            }
        } else {
            std::fill(results.radiation_out_top.begin(), results.radiation_out_top.end(), 0.0f);
        }
 
        // Download radiation_out_bottom buffer
        if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            void *mapped;
            VkResult result = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation, &mapped);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
                std::memcpy(results.radiation_out_bottom.data(), mapped, buffer_size * sizeof(float));
                vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation);
            }
        } else {
            std::fill(results.radiation_out_bottom.begin(), results.radiation_out_bottom.end(), 0.0f);
        }
 
        // Download scatter_top buffer
        results.scatter_buff_top.resize(buffer_size);
        if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            void *mapped;
            VkResult result = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_top_buffer.allocation, &mapped);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), scatter_top_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
                std::memcpy(results.scatter_buff_top.data(), mapped, buffer_size * sizeof(float));
                vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_top_buffer.allocation);
            }
        } else {
            std::fill(results.scatter_buff_top.begin(), results.scatter_buff_top.end(), 0.0f);
        }
 
        // Download scatter_bottom buffer
        results.scatter_buff_bottom.resize(buffer_size);
        if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            void *mapped;
            VkResult result = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_bottom_buffer.allocation, &mapped);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), scatter_bottom_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
                std::memcpy(results.scatter_buff_bottom.data(), mapped, buffer_size * sizeof(float));
                vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_bottom_buffer.allocation);
            }
        } else {
            std::fill(results.scatter_buff_bottom.begin(), results.scatter_buff_bottom.end(), 0.0f);
        }
 
        // Camera scatter buffers: use regular scatter as proxy for camera-weighted scatter.
        // This is exact when camera spectral response is uniform (1.0 across all wavelengths).
        // For non-uniform camera responses, Vulkan shaders would need dedicated camera scatter
        // buffers with camera-weighted materials (rho_cam, tau_cam), matching OptiX (rayHit.cu:223-236).
        results.scatter_buff_top_cam = results.scatter_buff_top;
        results.scatter_buff_bottom_cam = results.scatter_buff_bottom;
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::getCameraResults(std::vector<float> &pixel_data, std::vector<uint> &pixel_labels, std::vector<float> &pixel_depths, uint camera_id, const helios::int2 &resolution) {
        size_t total_pixels = size_t(resolution.x) * size_t(resolution.y);
        if (total_pixels == 0) {
            return; // No pixels
        }
 
        // Download camera buffers via the staging path (downloadBufferData): it GPU-copies into a
        // CPU_ONLY (system-RAM) staging buffer that is always fully host-mappable. The camera buffers
        // are created VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST, which on NVIDIA can land in the device-local
        // host-visible BAR heap; directly mapping and memcpy-ing a large (e.g. 12 MP × multi-band,
        // ~146 MB) allocation from BAR faults partway through the copy. Going through staging avoids
        // mapping the large BAR allocation on the host.
        // The camera shader writes camera_radiation in BAND-MAJOR order [band][pixel] (so each band's
        // per-pixel atomic accumulations are coalesced — see camera_raygen.comp). RadiationModel and
        // the other backends expect PIXEL-MAJOR [pixel][band], so transpose on download.
        pixel_data.resize(total_pixels * launch_band_count);
        const size_t radiation_bytes = pixel_data.size() * sizeof(float);
        if (camera_radiation_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE && camera_radiation_buffer.size >= radiation_bytes && !pixel_data.empty()) {
            if (launch_band_count <= 1) {
                downloadBufferData(camera_radiation_buffer, pixel_data.data(), radiation_bytes);
            } else {
                std::vector<float> band_major(total_pixels * launch_band_count);
                downloadBufferData(camera_radiation_buffer, band_major.data(), band_major.size() * sizeof(float));
                for (uint32_t b = 0; b < launch_band_count; b++) {
                    const float *src = band_major.data() + size_t(b) * total_pixels;
                    for (size_t p = 0; p < total_pixels; p++) {
                        pixel_data[p * launch_band_count + b] = src[p];
                    }
                }
            }
        } else {
            std::fill(pixel_data.begin(), pixel_data.end(), 0.0f);
        }
 
        // Download camera_pixel_label_buffer (pixel_labels). The size guard is CRITICAL: these
        // buffers start as tiny placeholders and are only resized to full resolution by
        // zeroCameraPixelBuffers() during the pixel-label pass. RadiationModel::runBand() calls
        // getCameraResults() once for the radiation image BEFORE that pass, so without the guard we
        // would issue a full-resolution copy out of a 4-byte placeholder buffer (out-of-bounds GPU
        // copy -> hang). Skip the download until the buffer is correctly sized.
        pixel_labels.resize(total_pixels);
        if (camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE && camera_pixel_label_buffer.size >= total_pixels * sizeof(uint) && !pixel_labels.empty()) {
            downloadBufferData(camera_pixel_label_buffer, pixel_labels.data(), pixel_labels.size() * sizeof(uint));
        } else {
            std::fill(pixel_labels.begin(), pixel_labels.end(), 0u);
        }
 
        // Download camera_pixel_depth_buffer (pixel_depths) — same placeholder-size guard as labels.
        pixel_depths.resize(total_pixels);
        if (camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE && camera_pixel_depth_buffer.size >= total_pixels * sizeof(float) && !pixel_depths.empty()) {
            downloadBufferData(camera_pixel_depth_buffer, pixel_depths.data(), pixel_depths.size() * sizeof(float));
        } else {
            std::fill(pixel_depths.begin(), pixel_depths.end(), 0.0f);
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::zeroRadiationBuffers(size_t launch_band_count_param) {
        // Store the launch band count for this runBand() call up front, even when there is no
        // geometry/bands to allocate buffers for. Other per-launch operations (notably
        // uploadSourceFluxes()) validate their input sizes against launch_band_count, so it must
        // always reflect the current launch — otherwise a launch over an empty scene would leave it
        // stale at 0 and reject a correctly-sized (Nsources * Nbands_launch) flux upload.
        launch_band_count = static_cast<uint32_t>(launch_band_count_param);
 
        if (primitive_count == 0 || band_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry or bands - nothing to allocate
        }
 
        // Create or resize band_map buffer [launch_band_count × uint32]
        size_t band_map_size = launch_band_count * sizeof(uint32_t);
        if (band_map_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || band_map_buffer.size != band_map_size) {
            if (band_map_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(band_map_buffer);
            }
            band_map_buffer = createBuffer(band_map_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        size_t buffer_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count;
 
        // Create or resize radiation_in buffer
        // CRITICAL: Use AUTO_PREFER_HOST for coherent memory (matches working Vulkan compute examples)
        // This ensures HOST_VISIBLE | HOST_COHERENT memory which works reliably on MoltenVK
        if (radiation_in_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_in_buffer.size != buffer_size * sizeof(float)) {
            if (radiation_in_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_in_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_in_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size * sizeof(float), usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        }
 
        // Create or resize radiation_specular buffer [source * primitive * band]
        // Only create if source_count > 0 (specular requires sources)
        if (source_count > 0) {
            size_t specular_buffer_size = source_count * primitive_count * launch_band_count;
            if (radiation_specular_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_specular_buffer.size != specular_buffer_size * sizeof(float)) {
                if (radiation_specular_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                    destroyBuffer(radiation_specular_buffer);
                }
                VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
                radiation_specular_buffer = createBuffer(specular_buffer_size * sizeof(float), usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            }
            zeroBuffer(radiation_specular_buffer);
        }
 
        // Zero radiation buffers
        zeroBuffer(radiation_in_buffer);
 
        descriptors_dirty = true; // Result buffers created/changed
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::zeroScatterBuffers() {
        if (primitive_count == 0 || launch_band_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry or bands
        }
 
        size_t buffer_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count;
 
        // Create or resize scatter_top buffer
        if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || scatter_top_buffer.size != buffer_size * sizeof(float)) {
            if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            scatter_top_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size * sizeof(float), usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        }
 
        // Create or resize scatter_bottom buffer
        if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || scatter_bottom_buffer.size != buffer_size * sizeof(float)) {
            if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            scatter_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size * sizeof(float), usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        }
 
        // Zero both buffers
        zeroBuffer(scatter_top_buffer);
        zeroBuffer(scatter_bottom_buffer);
 
        descriptors_dirty = true; // Scatter buffers created/changed
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::zeroCameraPixelBuffers(const helios::int2 &resolution) {
        size_t total_pixels = size_t(resolution.x) * size_t(resolution.y);
        if (total_pixels == 0) {
            return; // No pixels
        }
 
        // Create or resize camera_pixel_label_buffer
        VkDeviceSize label_size = total_pixels * sizeof(uint32_t);
        if (camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_pixel_label_buffer.size != label_size) {
            if (camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_pixel_label_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_pixel_label_buffer = createBuffer(label_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Create or resize camera_pixel_depth_buffer
        VkDeviceSize depth_size = total_pixels * sizeof(float);
        if (camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_pixel_depth_buffer.size != depth_size) {
            if (camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_pixel_depth_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_pixel_depth_buffer = createBuffer(depth_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Zero both buffers
        zeroBuffer(camera_pixel_label_buffer);
        zeroBuffer(camera_pixel_depth_buffer);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::copyScatterToRadiation() {
        if (primitive_count == 0 || launch_band_count == 0) {
            return; // No geometry or bands
        }
 
        // Use launch_band_count (the count of bands in the current runBand dispatch),
        // not the global band_count. The scatter and radiation_out buffers are sized
        // to launch_band_count everywhere else (zeroScatterBuffers, zeroRadiationBuffers,
        // launchDirectRays, launchDiffuseRays). Using band_count here would compute a
        // larger size than the source buffer and crash via OOB read in memcpy whenever
        // the launch is a strict subset of all bands (e.g. SIF emission dispatch after
        // a recursive excitation-band dispatch raises the global band_count).
        size_t buffer_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count * sizeof(float);
 
        // Create radiation_out_top/bottom buffers if they don't exist
        if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_top_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_out_top_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_bottom_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_out_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Wait for any pending compute work and invalidate scatter buffers before reading
        vkQueueWaitIdle(device->getComputeQueue());
 
        // Copy scatter_top → radiation_out_top
        vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), scatter_top_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
        void *src_top = nullptr;
        void *dst_top = nullptr;
        vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_top_buffer.allocation, &src_top);
        vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation, &dst_top);
        memcpy(dst_top, src_top, buffer_size);
        vmaFlushAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
        vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_top_buffer.allocation);
        vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation);
 
        // Copy scatter_bottom → radiation_out_bottom
        vmaInvalidateAllocation(device->getAllocator(), scatter_bottom_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
        void *src_bottom = nullptr;
        void *dst_bottom = nullptr;
        vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_bottom_buffer.allocation, &src_bottom);
        vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation, &dst_bottom);
        memcpy(dst_bottom, src_bottom, buffer_size);
        vmaFlushAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
        vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), scatter_bottom_buffer.allocation);
        vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::uploadRadiationOut(const std::vector<float> &radiation_out_top, const std::vector<float> &radiation_out_bottom) {
        if (radiation_out_top.empty() || radiation_out_bottom.empty()) {
            return; // No data to upload
        }
 
        size_t buffer_size = radiation_out_top.size() * sizeof(float);
 
        // Create radiation_out_top buffer if needed
        if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_top_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_out_top_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Create radiation_out_bottom buffer if needed
        if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || radiation_out_bottom_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(radiation_out_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            radiation_out_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Upload data using direct mapping (HOST_VISIBLE buffers, matching copyScatterToRadiation approach)
        void *dst_top = nullptr;
        void *dst_bottom = nullptr;
        VkResult result_top = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation, &dst_top);
        VkResult result_bottom = vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation, &dst_bottom);
 
        if (result_top == VK_SUCCESS) {
            std::memcpy(dst_top, radiation_out_top.data(), buffer_size);
            vmaFlushAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
            vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_top_buffer.allocation);
        }
        if (result_bottom == VK_SUCCESS) {
            std::memcpy(dst_bottom, radiation_out_bottom.data(), buffer_size);
            vmaFlushAllocation(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation, 0, VK_WHOLE_SIZE);
            vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), radiation_out_bottom_buffer.allocation);
        }
        if (result_top != VK_SUCCESS || result_bottom != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::uploadRadiationOut): Failed to map radiation output buffers.");
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::uploadCameraScatterBuffers(const std::vector<float> &scatter_top_cam, const std::vector<float> &scatter_bottom_cam) {
        if (scatter_top_cam.empty() || scatter_bottom_cam.empty()) {
            return; // No data to upload
        }
 
        size_t buffer_size = scatter_top_cam.size() * sizeof(float);
 
        // Create or resize camera_scatter_top_buffer
        if (camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_scatter_top_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_scatter_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_scatter_top_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Create or resize camera_scatter_bottom_buffer
        if (camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_scatter_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_scatter_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Upload data to both buffers
        uploadBufferData(camera_scatter_top_buffer, scatter_top_cam.data(), buffer_size);
        uploadBufferData(camera_scatter_bottom_buffer, scatter_bottom_cam.data(), buffer_size);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::zeroCameraScatterBuffers(size_t launch_band_count_param) {
        if (primitive_count == 0 || launch_band_count_param == 0) {
            return; // No geometry or bands
        }
 
        size_t buffer_size = primitive_count * launch_band_count_param * sizeof(float);
 
        // Create or resize camera_scatter_top_buffer
        if (camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_scatter_top_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_scatter_top_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_scatter_top_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Create or resize camera_scatter_bottom_buffer
        if (camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer == VK_NULL_HANDLE || camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.size != buffer_size) {
            if (camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
                destroyBuffer(camera_scatter_bottom_buffer);
            }
            VkBufferUsageFlags usage = VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
            camera_scatter_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(buffer_size, usage, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
            descriptors_dirty = true;
        }
 
        // Zero both buffers
        zeroBuffer(camera_scatter_top_buffer);
        zeroBuffer(camera_scatter_bottom_buffer);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::uploadSourceFluxes(const std::vector<float> &fluxes) {
        if (fluxes.empty() || source_count == 0) {
            return; // No fluxes or sources
        }
 
        // Fluxes are indexed by [source * Nbands_launch + band]
        // We expect Nsources * Nbands_launch entries
        size_t expected_size = source_count * launch_band_count;
 
        if (fluxes.size() != expected_size && fluxes.size() != source_count) {
            // Allow single-band upload (size = Nsources) or full upload (size = Nsources * Nbands)
            if (fluxes.size() != source_count) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::uploadSourceFluxes): fluxes size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(source_count) + " (single band) or " + std::to_string(expected_size) + " (all bands), got " +
                                     std::to_string(fluxes.size()));
            }
        }
 
        if (source_fluxes_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            destroyBuffer(source_fluxes_buffer);
        }
        source_fluxes_buffer = createBuffer(fluxes.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uploadBufferData(source_fluxes_buffer, fluxes.data(), fluxes.size() * sizeof(float));
 
        descriptors_dirty = true; // New buffer created, descriptors need update
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::uploadSourceFluxesCam(const std::vector<float> &fluxes_cam) {
        if (fluxes_cam.empty() || source_count == 0) {
            return; // No camera weights or sources
        }
 
        // Camera spectral response weights indexed by [source * Nbands_launch + band]
        size_t expected_size = source_count * launch_band_count;
 
        if (fluxes_cam.size() != expected_size) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::uploadSourceFluxesCam): fluxes_cam size mismatch. Expected " + std::to_string(expected_size) + " (Nsources * Nbands_launch), got " + std::to_string(fluxes_cam.size()));
        }
 
        if (source_fluxes_cam_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            destroyBuffer(source_fluxes_cam_buffer);
        }
        source_fluxes_cam_buffer = createBuffer(fluxes_cam.size() * sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uploadBufferData(source_fluxes_cam_buffer, fluxes_cam.data(), fluxes_cam.size() * sizeof(float));
 
        descriptors_dirty = true; // New buffer uploaded, descriptors need update
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::queryGPUMemory() const {
        // Query VMA statistics
        VmaTotalStatistics stats;
        vmaCalculateStatistics(device->getAllocator(), &stats);
 
        std::cout << "========== Vulkan Memory Usage ==========" << std::endl;
        std::cout << "Allocated blocks: " << stats.total.statistics.blockCount << std::endl;
        std::cout << "Allocated memory: " << (stats.total.statistics.allocationBytes / 1024.0 / 1024.0) << " MB" << std::endl;
        std::cout << "Used memory: " << (stats.total.statistics.blockBytes / 1024.0 / 1024.0) << " MB" << std::endl;
 
        // Query physical device memory properties
        VkPhysicalDeviceMemoryProperties mem_props;
        vkGetPhysicalDeviceMemoryProperties(device->getPhysicalDevice(), &mem_props);
 
        std::cout << "\nTotal device memory heaps: " << mem_props.memoryHeapCount << std::endl;
        for (uint32_t i = 0; i < mem_props.memoryHeapCount; ++i) {
            std::cout << "  Heap " << i << ": " << (mem_props.memoryHeaps[i].size / 1024.0 / 1024.0 / 1024.0) << " GB";
            if (mem_props.memoryHeaps[i].flags & VK_MEMORY_HEAP_DEVICE_LOCAL_BIT) {
                std::cout << " (device-local)";
            }
            std::cout << std::endl;
        }
        std::cout << "==========================================" << std::endl;
    }
 
    // ========== Helper methods ==========
 
    VulkanComputeBackend::Buffer VulkanComputeBackend::createBuffer(VkDeviceSize size, VkBufferUsageFlags usage, VmaMemoryUsage mem_usage) {
        Buffer buffer;
        buffer.size = size;
 
        VkBufferCreateInfo buffer_info{};
        buffer_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_CREATE_INFO;
        buffer_info.size = size;
        buffer_info.usage = usage | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT;
        buffer_info.sharingMode = VK_SHARING_MODE_EXCLUSIVE;
 
        VmaAllocationCreateInfo alloc_info{};
        alloc_info.usage = mem_usage;
 
        // CRITICAL for MoltenVK: Request host-coherent memory for compute shader result buffers
        // This matches working Vulkan compute examples that use HOST_VISIBLE | HOST_COHERENT
        if (mem_usage == VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST) {
            alloc_info.flags |= VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_MAPPED_BIT | VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_HOST_ACCESS_RANDOM_BIT;
            alloc_info.requiredFlags = VK_MEMORY_PROPERTY_HOST_VISIBLE_BIT | VK_MEMORY_PROPERTY_HOST_COHERENT_BIT;
        }
 
        // Optimization: Use dedicated memory for large GPU-only buffers (>64 MB)
        if (mem_usage == VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY && size > 64 * 1024 * 1024) {
            alloc_info.flags |= VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_DEDICATED_MEMORY_BIT;
        }
 
        // Optimization: Keep staging buffers persistently mapped for faster CPU access
        if (mem_usage == VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_ONLY) {
            alloc_info.flags |= VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_MAPPED_BIT | VMA_ALLOCATION_CREATE_HOST_ACCESS_SEQUENTIAL_WRITE_BIT;
        }
 
        VkResult result = vmaCreateBuffer(device->getAllocator(), &buffer_info, &alloc_info, &buffer.buffer, &buffer.allocation, nullptr);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createBuffer): Failed to create buffer. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        return buffer;
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::destroyBuffer(Buffer &buffer) {
        if (buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            vmaDestroyBuffer(device->getAllocator(), buffer.buffer, buffer.allocation);
            buffer.buffer = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
            buffer.allocation = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
            buffer.size = 0;
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::uploadBufferData(Buffer &buffer, const void *data, size_t size) {
        // Create staging buffer
        Buffer staging = createBuffer(size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_SRC_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_ONLY);
 
        // Map and copy
        void *mapped;
        vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), staging.allocation, &mapped);
        std::memcpy(mapped, data, size);
        vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), staging.allocation);
 
        // Copy staging → device buffer
        VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
        begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
        begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
        vkBeginCommandBuffer(transfer_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
        VkBufferCopy copy_region{};
        copy_region.size = size;
        vkCmdCopyBuffer(transfer_command_buffer, staging.buffer, buffer.buffer, 1, &copy_region);
 
        // Add memory barrier to ensure transfer completes before compute shader access
        VkBufferMemoryBarrier barrier{};
        barrier.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        barrier.srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_WRITE_BIT;
        barrier.dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        barrier.srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barrier.dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barrier.buffer = buffer.buffer;
        barrier.offset = 0;
        barrier.size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        vkCmdPipelineBarrier(transfer_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, 0, 0, nullptr, 1, &barrier, 0, nullptr);
 
        vkEndCommandBuffer(transfer_command_buffer);
 
        // Submit with fence
        VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
        submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
        submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
        submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &transfer_command_buffer;
 
        vkResetFences(device->getDevice(), 1, &transfer_fence);
        vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, transfer_fence);
 
        // Polling-based timeout (MoltenVK doesn't respect timeout parameter)
        const int max_attempts = 50;
        const uint64_t poll_interval_ns = 100000000ULL; // 100ms
        bool completed = false;
 
        for (int attempt = 0; attempt < max_attempts; ++attempt) {
            VkResult result = vkWaitForFences(device->getDevice(), 1, &transfer_fence, VK_TRUE, poll_interval_ns);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                completed = true;
                break;
            } else if (result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::uploadBufferData): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
            }
        }
 
        if (!completed) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::uploadBufferData): GPU buffer upload timed out after 5 seconds. Buffer size: " + std::to_string(size));
        }
 
        // SAFETY: Staging buffer destroyed only after fence signals (GPU copy complete)
        destroyBuffer(staging);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::downloadBufferData(const Buffer &buffer, void *data, size_t size) {
        // CRITICAL: Wait for ALL GPU work to complete before downloading
        // This ensures compute shader writes are visible to the transfer operation
        vkQueueWaitIdle(device->getComputeQueue());
 
        // Create staging buffer
        Buffer staging = createBuffer(size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_CPU_ONLY);
 
        // Copy device → staging
        VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
        begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
        begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
        vkBeginCommandBuffer(transfer_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
        // Add memory barrier to ensure compute shader writes complete before transfer
        VkBufferMemoryBarrier barrier{};
        barrier.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_MEMORY_BARRIER;
        barrier.srcAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT | VK_ACCESS_SHADER_WRITE_BIT;
        barrier.dstAccessMask = VK_ACCESS_TRANSFER_READ_BIT;
        barrier.srcQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barrier.dstQueueFamilyIndex = VK_QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED;
        barrier.buffer = buffer.buffer;
        barrier.offset = 0;
        barrier.size = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        vkCmdPipelineBarrier(transfer_command_buffer, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_COMPUTE_SHADER_BIT, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TRANSFER_BIT, 0, 0, nullptr, 1, &barrier, 0, nullptr);
 
        VkBufferCopy copy_region{};
        copy_region.size = size;
        vkCmdCopyBuffer(transfer_command_buffer, buffer.buffer, staging.buffer, 1, &copy_region);
 
        vkEndCommandBuffer(transfer_command_buffer);
 
        // Submit with fence
        VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
        submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
        submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
        submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &transfer_command_buffer;
 
        vkResetFences(device->getDevice(), 1, &transfer_fence);
        vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, transfer_fence);
 
        // Polling-based timeout (MoltenVK doesn't respect timeout parameter)
        const int max_attempts = 50;
        const uint64_t poll_interval_ns = 100000000ULL; // 100ms
        bool completed = false;
 
        for (int attempt = 0; attempt < max_attempts; ++attempt) {
            VkResult result = vkWaitForFences(device->getDevice(), 1, &transfer_fence, VK_TRUE, poll_interval_ns);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                completed = true;
                break;
            } else if (result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::downloadBufferData): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
            }
        }
 
        if (!completed) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::downloadBufferData): GPU buffer download timed out after 5 seconds. Buffer size: " + std::to_string(size));
        }
 
        // Map and read
        void *mapped;
        vmaMapMemory(device->getAllocator(), staging.allocation, &mapped);
        std::memcpy(data, mapped, size);
        vmaUnmapMemory(device->getAllocator(), staging.allocation);
 
        // Cleanup staging
        destroyBuffer(staging);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::zeroBuffer(Buffer &buffer) {
        VkCommandBufferBeginInfo begin_info{};
        begin_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
        begin_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;
        vkBeginCommandBuffer(transfer_command_buffer, &begin_info);
 
        vkCmdFillBuffer(transfer_command_buffer, buffer.buffer, 0, buffer.size, 0);
 
        vkEndCommandBuffer(transfer_command_buffer);
 
        // Submit with fence
        VkSubmitInfo submit_info{};
        submit_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
        submit_info.commandBufferCount = 1;
        submit_info.pCommandBuffers = &transfer_command_buffer;
 
        vkResetFences(device->getDevice(), 1, &transfer_fence);
        vkQueueSubmit(device->getComputeQueue(), 1, &submit_info, transfer_fence);
 
        // Polling-based timeout (MoltenVK doesn't respect timeout parameter)
        const int max_attempts = 50;
        const uint64_t poll_interval_ns = 100000000ULL; // 100ms
        bool completed = false;
 
        for (int attempt = 0; attempt < max_attempts; ++attempt) {
            VkResult result = vkWaitForFences(device->getDevice(), 1, &transfer_fence, VK_TRUE, poll_interval_ns);
            if (result == VK_SUCCESS) {
                completed = true;
                break;
            } else if (result != VK_TIMEOUT) {
                helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::zeroBuffer): vkWaitForFences failed. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
            }
        }
 
        if (!completed) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::zeroBuffer): GPU buffer clear timed out after 5 seconds. Buffer size: " + std::to_string(buffer.size));
        }
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::createCommandResources() {
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        VkCommandPoolCreateInfo pool_info{};
        pool_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_POOL_CREATE_INFO;
        pool_info.queueFamilyIndex = device->getComputeQueueFamily();
        pool_info.flags = VK_COMMAND_POOL_CREATE_RESET_COMMAND_BUFFER_BIT;
 
        VkResult result = vkCreateCommandPool(vk_device, &pool_info, nullptr, &command_pool);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createCommandResources): Failed to create command pool. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        // Allocate TWO command buffers: one for transfers, one for compute
        VkCommandBufferAllocateInfo alloc_info{};
        alloc_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_ALLOCATE_INFO;
        alloc_info.commandPool = command_pool;
        alloc_info.level = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_LEVEL_PRIMARY;
        alloc_info.commandBufferCount = 2;
 
        VkCommandBuffer buffers[2];
        result = vkAllocateCommandBuffers(vk_device, &alloc_info, buffers);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createCommandResources): Failed to allocate command buffers. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        transfer_command_buffer = buffers[0];
        compute_command_buffer = buffers[1];
 
        // Create fences for synchronization
        VkFenceCreateInfo fence_info{};
        fence_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_FENCE_CREATE_INFO;
        fence_info.flags = VK_FENCE_CREATE_SIGNALED_BIT; // Start signaled so first wait succeeds
 
        result = vkCreateFence(vk_device, &fence_info, nullptr, &transfer_fence);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createCommandResources): Failed to create transfer fence. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        result = vkCreateFence(vk_device, &fence_info, nullptr, &compute_fence);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createCommandResources): Failed to create compute fence. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        // Create timestamp query pool for GPU profiling (2 queries: start and end)
        VkQueryPoolCreateInfo query_pool_info{};
        query_pool_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_QUERY_POOL_CREATE_INFO;
        query_pool_info.queryType = VK_QUERY_TYPE_TIMESTAMP;
        query_pool_info.queryCount = 2;
 
        result = vkCreateQueryPool(vk_device, &query_pool_info, nullptr, &timestamp_query_pool);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createCommandResources): Failed to create timestamp query pool. VkResult: " + std::to_string(result));
        }
 
        // Get timestamp period (nanoseconds per tick) for converting timestamps to time
        VkPhysicalDeviceProperties props;
        vkGetPhysicalDeviceProperties(device->getPhysicalDevice(), &props);
        timestamp_period = props.limits.timestampPeriod;
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets() {
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // ========== Create Descriptor Set Layouts ==========
 
        // Set 0: Geometry buffers (changes on geometry update)
        std::vector<VkDescriptorSetLayoutBinding> geometry_bindings = {
                {0, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // BVH nodes
                {1, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Primitive indices
                {2, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Transform matrices
                {3, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Primitive types
                {4, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Primitive UUIDs
                {5, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Primitive positions
                {6, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Object subdivisions
                {7, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Twosided flags
                {8, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Patch vertices
                {9, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Triangle vertices
                {10, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // World-space normals
                {11, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Mask data (uint)
                {12, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Mask sizes (ivec2)
                {13, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Mask offsets (uint)
                {14, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Mask IDs (int)
                {15, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // UV data (vec2)
                {16, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // UV IDs (int)
                {17, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Bbox vertices (periodic boundary)
        };
 
        VkDescriptorSetLayoutCreateInfo layout_info{};
        layout_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DESCRIPTOR_SET_LAYOUT_CREATE_INFO;
        layout_info.bindingCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(geometry_bindings.size());
        layout_info.pBindings = geometry_bindings.data();
 
        if (vkCreateDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, &layout_info, nullptr, &set_layout_geometry) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to create geometry descriptor set layout");
        }
 
        // Set 1: Material/Source buffers (changes per simulation)
        std::vector<VkDescriptorSetLayoutBinding> material_bindings = {
                {0, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Source positions
                {1, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Source types
                {2, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Source rotations
                {3, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Source widths
                {4, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Source fluxes
                {5, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Reflectivity
                {6, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Transmissivity
                {7, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Specular exponent
                {8, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Specular scale
                {9, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Source fluxes (camera-weighted)
                {10, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Band map
                {11, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Translucent cover: is_glass (uint)
                {12, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Translucent cover: glass_n (float)
                {13, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // Translucent cover: glass_KL (float)
        };
 
        layout_info.bindingCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(material_bindings.size());
        layout_info.pBindings = material_bindings.data();
 
        if (vkCreateDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, &layout_info, nullptr, &set_layout_materials) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to create material descriptor set layout");
        }
 
        // Set 2: Result buffers (read/write, zeroed per-launch)
        std::vector<VkDescriptorSetLayoutBinding> result_bindings = {
                {0, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // radiation_in
                {1, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // radiation_out_top
                {2, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // radiation_out_bottom
                {3, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // scatter_top
                {4, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // scatter_bottom
                {5, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_radiation
                {6, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_pixel_label
                {7, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_pixel_depth
                {8, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_scatter_top
                {9, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_scatter_bottom
                {10, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // radiation_specular
        };
 
        layout_info.bindingCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(result_bindings.size());
        layout_info.pBindings = result_bindings.data();
 
        if (vkCreateDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, &layout_info, nullptr, &set_layout_results) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to create result descriptor set layout");
        }
 
        // Set 3: Sky parameters (read-only diffuse parameters)
        std::vector<VkDescriptorSetLayoutBinding> sky_bindings = {
                {0, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // diffuse_flux
                {1, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // diffuse_peak_dir
                {2, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // diffuse_extinction
                {3, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // diffuse_dist_norm
                {4, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // sky_radiance_params
                {5, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_sky_radiance
                {6, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // solar_disk_radiance
                {7, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // camera_diffuse_flux
                {8, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // band_emission_flag
        };
 
        layout_info.bindingCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(sky_bindings.size());
        layout_info.pBindings = sky_bindings.data();
 
        if (vkCreateDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, &layout_info, nullptr, &set_layout_sky) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to create sky descriptor set layout");
        }
 
        // Set 4: Debug counters (profiling/diagnostics)
        std::vector<VkDescriptorSetLayoutBinding> debug_bindings = {
                {0, VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 1, VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT, nullptr}, // debug_counters
        };
 
        layout_info.bindingCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(debug_bindings.size());
        layout_info.pBindings = debug_bindings.data();
 
        if (vkCreateDescriptorSetLayout(vk_device, &layout_info, nullptr, &set_layout_debug) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to create debug descriptor set layout");
        }
 
        // ========== Create Descriptor Pool ==========
 
        std::vector<VkDescriptorPoolSize> pool_sizes = {
                {VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER, 64}, // All sets: 18 geo + 11 mat + 11 result + 9 sky + 1 debug + margin
        };
 
        VkDescriptorPoolCreateInfo pool_info{};
        pool_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DESCRIPTOR_POOL_CREATE_INFO;
        pool_info.poolSizeCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(pool_sizes.size());
        pool_info.pPoolSizes = pool_sizes.data();
        pool_info.maxSets = 5; // geometry, materials, results, sky, debug
 
        if (vkCreateDescriptorPool(vk_device, &pool_info, nullptr, &descriptor_pool) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to create descriptor pool");
        }
 
        // ========== Allocate Descriptor Sets ==========
 
        VkDescriptorSetLayout layouts[] = {set_layout_geometry, set_layout_materials, set_layout_results, set_layout_sky, set_layout_debug};
 
        VkDescriptorSetAllocateInfo alloc_info{};
        alloc_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DESCRIPTOR_SET_ALLOCATE_INFO;
        alloc_info.descriptorPool = descriptor_pool;
        alloc_info.descriptorSetCount = 5;
        alloc_info.pSetLayouts = layouts;
 
        VkDescriptorSet sets[5];
        if (vkAllocateDescriptorSets(vk_device, &alloc_info, sets) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createDescriptorSets): Failed to allocate descriptor sets");
        }
 
        set_geometry = sets[0];
        set_materials = sets[1];
        set_results = sets[2];
        set_sky = sets[3];
        set_debug = sets[4];
 
        // ========== Create placeholder sky parameter buffers ==========
        // MoltenVK requires all descriptor buffers to exist before pipeline creation
        // to determine argument buffer resource base types during shader compilation.
        // These will be resized properly when launchDiffuseRays() is first called.
 
        const size_t placeholder_size = sizeof(float); // Minimal 1-element buffer
        // All placeholders include TRANSFER_DST for zeroing - VMA may reuse freed memory with stale data
 
        diffuse_flux_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(diffuse_flux_buffer);
        diffuse_peak_dir_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(helios::vec3), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(diffuse_peak_dir_buffer);
        diffuse_extinction_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(diffuse_extinction_buffer);
        diffuse_dist_norm_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(diffuse_dist_norm_buffer);
        sky_radiance_params_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(helios::vec4), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(sky_radiance_params_buffer);
        camera_sky_radiance_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(camera_sky_radiance_buffer);
        solar_disk_radiance_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(solar_disk_radiance_buffer);
        camera_diffuse_flux_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(camera_diffuse_flux_buffer);
        band_emission_flag_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(band_emission_flag_buffer);
 
        // ========== Create placeholder camera result buffers ==========
        // MoltenVK requires these before pipeline creation (camera shaders reference them)
        camera_radiation_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        zeroBuffer(camera_radiation_buffer);
        camera_pixel_label_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        zeroBuffer(camera_pixel_label_buffer);
        camera_pixel_depth_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        zeroBuffer(camera_pixel_depth_buffer);
        camera_scatter_top_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        zeroBuffer(camera_scatter_top_buffer);
        camera_scatter_bottom_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_AUTO_PREFER_HOST);
        zeroBuffer(camera_scatter_bottom_buffer);
 
        // ========== Create placeholder specular buffers ==========
        // MoltenVK requires these before pipeline creation (camera/direct shaders reference them)
        specular_exponent_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(specular_exponent_buffer);
        specular_scale_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(specular_scale_buffer);
        source_fluxes_cam_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(source_fluxes_cam_buffer);
        radiation_specular_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(radiation_specular_buffer);
 
        // ========== Create placeholder translucent-cover (glass) buffers ==========
        // Bindings 11-13 of the material set are always referenced by the direct/diffuse shaders, so
        // valid buffers must exist before pipeline creation. A zeroed is_glass means "no glass anywhere".
        is_glass_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(is_glass_buffer);
        glass_n_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(glass_n_buffer);
        glass_KL_buffer = createBuffer(placeholder_size, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT | VK_BUFFER_USAGE_TRANSFER_DST_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        zeroBuffer(glass_KL_buffer);
 
        // ========== Create placeholder mask/UV buffers ==========
        // Same requirement as sky parameters — needed before pipeline creation for MoltenVK
        mask_data_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        mask_sizes_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(int32_t) * 2, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        mask_offsets_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(uint32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        mask_IDs_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(int32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uv_data_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(float) * 2, VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        uv_IDs_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(int32_t), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
        bbox_vertices_buffer = createBuffer(sizeof(float), VK_BUFFER_USAGE_STORAGE_BUFFER_BIT, VMA_MEMORY_USAGE_GPU_ONLY);
 
        // Update descriptor set 3 (sky parameters) with placeholder buffers
        // Note: Geometry/material/result buffers don't exist yet, so we only update set 3
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_flux_info{};
        diffuse_flux_info.buffer = diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_flux_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_flux_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_peak_dir_info{};
        diffuse_peak_dir_info.buffer = diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_peak_dir_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_peak_dir_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_extinction_info{};
        diffuse_extinction_info.buffer = diffuse_extinction_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_extinction_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_extinction_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_dist_norm_info{};
        diffuse_dist_norm_info.buffer = diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_dist_norm_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_dist_norm_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo sky_radiance_params_info{};
        sky_radiance_params_info.buffer = sky_radiance_params_buffer.buffer;
        sky_radiance_params_info.offset = 0;
        sky_radiance_params_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        std::vector<VkWriteDescriptorSet> descriptor_writes;
 
        VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
        write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
        write.dstSet = set_sky;
        write.dstBinding = 0;
        write.dstArrayElement = 0;
        write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
        write.descriptorCount = 1;
        write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_flux_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 1;
        write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_peak_dir_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 2;
        write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_extinction_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 3;
        write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_dist_norm_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 4;
        write.pBufferInfo = &sky_radiance_params_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_sky_radiance_info{};
        camera_sky_radiance_info.buffer = camera_sky_radiance_buffer.buffer;
        camera_sky_radiance_info.offset = 0;
        camera_sky_radiance_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstBinding = 5;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_sky_radiance_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo solar_disk_radiance_info{};
        solar_disk_radiance_info.buffer = solar_disk_radiance_buffer.buffer;
        solar_disk_radiance_info.offset = 0;
        solar_disk_radiance_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstBinding = 6;
        write.pBufferInfo = &solar_disk_radiance_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_diffuse_flux_info{};
        camera_diffuse_flux_info.buffer = camera_diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer;
        camera_diffuse_flux_info.offset = 0;
        camera_diffuse_flux_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstBinding = 7;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_diffuse_flux_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo band_emission_flag_info{};
        band_emission_flag_info.buffer = band_emission_flag_buffer.buffer;
        band_emission_flag_info.offset = 0;
        band_emission_flag_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstBinding = 8;
        write.pBufferInfo = &band_emission_flag_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        // Descriptor writes for camera result placeholder buffers (set_results bindings 5-9)
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_radiation_info{};
        camera_radiation_info.buffer = camera_radiation_buffer.buffer;
        camera_radiation_info.offset = 0;
        camera_radiation_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_pixel_label_info{};
        camera_pixel_label_info.buffer = camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer;
        camera_pixel_label_info.offset = 0;
        camera_pixel_label_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_pixel_depth_info{};
        camera_pixel_depth_info.buffer = camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer;
        camera_pixel_depth_info.offset = 0;
        camera_pixel_depth_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_scatter_top_info{};
        camera_scatter_top_info.buffer = camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer;
        camera_scatter_top_info.offset = 0;
        camera_scatter_top_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_scatter_bottom_info{};
        camera_scatter_bottom_info.buffer = camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer;
        camera_scatter_bottom_info.offset = 0;
        camera_scatter_bottom_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstSet = set_results;
        write.dstBinding = 5;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_radiation_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 6;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_pixel_label_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 7;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_pixel_depth_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 8;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_scatter_top_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 9;
        write.pBufferInfo = &camera_scatter_bottom_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        // Descriptor writes for mask/UV placeholder buffers (set_geometry bindings 11-16)
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_data_info{};
        mask_data_info.buffer = mask_data_buffer.buffer;
        mask_data_info.offset = 0;
        mask_data_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_sizes_info{};
        mask_sizes_info.buffer = mask_sizes_buffer.buffer;
        mask_sizes_info.offset = 0;
        mask_sizes_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_offsets_info{};
        mask_offsets_info.buffer = mask_offsets_buffer.buffer;
        mask_offsets_info.offset = 0;
        mask_offsets_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_IDs_info{};
        mask_IDs_info.buffer = mask_IDs_buffer.buffer;
        mask_IDs_info.offset = 0;
        mask_IDs_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo uv_data_info{};
        uv_data_info.buffer = uv_data_buffer.buffer;
        uv_data_info.offset = 0;
        uv_data_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo uv_IDs_info{};
        uv_IDs_info.buffer = uv_IDs_buffer.buffer;
        uv_IDs_info.offset = 0;
        uv_IDs_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstSet = set_geometry;
        write.dstBinding = 11;
        write.pBufferInfo = &mask_data_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 12;
        write.pBufferInfo = &mask_sizes_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 13;
        write.pBufferInfo = &mask_offsets_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 14;
        write.pBufferInfo = &mask_IDs_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 15;
        write.pBufferInfo = &uv_data_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        write.dstBinding = 16;
        write.pBufferInfo = &uv_IDs_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo bbox_verts_info{};
        bbox_verts_info.buffer = bbox_vertices_buffer.buffer;
        bbox_verts_info.offset = 0;
        bbox_verts_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        write.dstBinding = 17;
        write.pBufferInfo = &bbox_verts_info;
        descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
 
        vkUpdateDescriptorSets(vk_device, static_cast<uint32_t>(descriptor_writes.size()), descriptor_writes.data(), 0, nullptr);
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines() {
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        // ========== Create Pipeline Layout ==========
 
        VkDescriptorSetLayout set_layouts[] = {set_layout_geometry, set_layout_materials, set_layout_results, set_layout_sky, set_layout_debug};
 
        // Push constants (128 bytes max for MoltenVK compatibility)
        const uint32_t push_constant_size = 128;
 
        // Validate against device limits
        const VkPhysicalDeviceProperties &props = device->getDeviceProperties();
        if (push_constant_size > props.limits.maxPushConstantsSize) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines): Push constant size (" + std::to_string(push_constant_size) + " bytes) exceeds device limit (" + std::to_string(props.limits.maxPushConstantsSize) + " bytes)");
        }
 
        VkPushConstantRange push_constant_range{};
        push_constant_range.stageFlags = VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT;
        push_constant_range.offset = 0;
        push_constant_range.size = push_constant_size;
 
        VkPipelineLayoutCreateInfo pipeline_layout_info{};
        pipeline_layout_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_PIPELINE_LAYOUT_CREATE_INFO;
        pipeline_layout_info.setLayoutCount = 5; // geometry, materials, results, sky, debug
        pipeline_layout_info.pSetLayouts = set_layouts;
        pipeline_layout_info.pushConstantRangeCount = 1;
        pipeline_layout_info.pPushConstantRanges = &push_constant_range;
 
        if (vkCreatePipelineLayout(vk_device, &pipeline_layout_info, nullptr, &pipeline_layout) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines): Failed to create pipeline layout");
        }
 
        // ========== Load Shaders ==========
 
        // Shader paths (relative to build directory)
        std::string shader_dir = "plugins/radiation/";
 
        VkShaderModule shader_direct = loadShader(shader_dir + "direct_raygen.spv");
        VkShaderModule shader_diffuse = loadShader(shader_dir + "diffuse_raygen.spv");
        VkShaderModule shader_camera = loadShader(shader_dir + "camera_raygen.spv");
        VkShaderModule shader_pixel_label = loadShader(shader_dir + "pixel_label_raygen.spv");
 
        // ========== Create Compute Pipelines ==========
 
        VkComputePipelineCreateInfo pipeline_info{};
        pipeline_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMPUTE_PIPELINE_CREATE_INFO;
        pipeline_info.layout = pipeline_layout;
 
        // Direct ray pipeline
        pipeline_info.stage.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_PIPELINE_SHADER_STAGE_CREATE_INFO;
        pipeline_info.stage.stage = VK_SHADER_STAGE_COMPUTE_BIT;
        pipeline_info.stage.module = shader_direct;
        pipeline_info.stage.pName = "main";
 
        if (vkCreateComputePipelines(vk_device, VK_NULL_HANDLE, 1, &pipeline_info, nullptr, &pipeline_direct) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines): Failed to create direct ray pipeline");
        }
 
        // Diffuse ray pipeline
        pipeline_info.stage.module = shader_diffuse;
        if (vkCreateComputePipelines(vk_device, VK_NULL_HANDLE, 1, &pipeline_info, nullptr, &pipeline_diffuse) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines): Failed to create diffuse ray pipeline");
        }
 
        // Camera ray pipeline
        pipeline_info.stage.module = shader_camera;
        if (vkCreateComputePipelines(vk_device, VK_NULL_HANDLE, 1, &pipeline_info, nullptr, &pipeline_camera) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines): Failed to create camera ray pipeline");
        }
 
        // Pixel label pipeline
        pipeline_info.stage.module = shader_pixel_label;
        if (vkCreateComputePipelines(vk_device, VK_NULL_HANDLE, 1, &pipeline_info, nullptr, &pipeline_pixel_label) != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::createPipelines): Failed to create pixel label pipeline");
        }
 
        // Cleanup shader modules (no longer needed after pipeline creation)
        vkDestroyShaderModule(vk_device, shader_direct, nullptr);
        vkDestroyShaderModule(vk_device, shader_diffuse, nullptr);
        vkDestroyShaderModule(vk_device, shader_camera, nullptr);
        vkDestroyShaderModule(vk_device, shader_pixel_label, nullptr);
    }
 
    VkShaderModule VulkanComputeBackend::loadShader(const std::string &filename) {
        // Read SPIR-V file
        std::ifstream file(filename, std::ios::binary | std::ios::ate);
        if (!file.is_open()) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::loadShader): Failed to open shader file: " + filename);
        }
 
        size_t file_size = file.tellg();
        if (file_size == 0) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::loadShader): Shader file is empty: " + filename);
        }
        if (file_size % 4 != 0) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::loadShader): Invalid SPIR-V file size (not multiple of 4 bytes): " + filename);
        }
 
        std::vector<uint32_t> code(file_size / 4);
        file.seekg(0);
        file.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(code.data()), file_size);
        file.close();
 
        // Validate SPIR-V magic number (0x07230203)
        if (code.empty() || code[0] != 0x07230203) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::loadShader): Invalid SPIR-V magic number in: " + filename + ". Expected 0x07230203, got 0x" + std::to_string(code.empty() ? 0 : code[0]));
        }
 
        // Create shader module
        VkShaderModuleCreateInfo create_info{};
        create_info.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SHADER_MODULE_CREATE_INFO;
        create_info.codeSize = code.size() * sizeof(uint32_t);
        create_info.pCode = code.data();
 
        VkShaderModule shader_module;
        VkResult result = vkCreateShaderModule(device->getDevice(), &create_info, nullptr, &shader_module);
        if (result != VK_SUCCESS) {
            helios_runtime_error("ERROR (VulkanComputeBackend::loadShader): Failed to create shader module from: " + filename + " (VkResult: " + std::to_string(result) + ")");
        }
 
        return shader_module;
    }
 
    void VulkanComputeBackend::updateDescriptorSets() {
        VkDevice vk_device = device->getDevice();
 
        std::vector<VkWriteDescriptorSet> descriptor_writes;
 
        // ========== Set 0: Geometry Buffers ==========
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo bvh_info{};
        bvh_info.buffer = bvh_buffer.buffer;
        bvh_info.offset = 0;
        bvh_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo prim_indices_info{};
        prim_indices_info.buffer = primitive_indices_buffer.buffer;
        prim_indices_info.offset = 0;
        prim_indices_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo transform_info{};
        transform_info.buffer = transform_matrices_buffer.buffer;
        transform_info.offset = 0;
        transform_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo prim_types_info{};
        prim_types_info.buffer = primitive_types_buffer.buffer;
        prim_types_info.offset = 0;
        prim_types_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo prim_uuids_info{};
        prim_uuids_info.buffer = primitive_uuids_buffer.buffer;
        prim_uuids_info.offset = 0;
        prim_uuids_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo prim_positions_info{};
        prim_positions_info.buffer = primitive_positions_buffer.buffer;
        prim_positions_info.offset = 0;
        prim_positions_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo obj_subdivisions_info{};
        obj_subdivisions_info.buffer = object_subdivisions_buffer.buffer;
        obj_subdivisions_info.offset = 0;
        obj_subdivisions_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo twosided_info{};
        twosided_info.buffer = twosided_flag_buffer.buffer;
        twosided_info.offset = 0;
        twosided_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo patch_vertices_info{};
        patch_vertices_info.buffer = patch_vertices_buffer.buffer;
        patch_vertices_info.offset = 0;
        patch_vertices_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo triangle_vertices_info{};
        triangle_vertices_info.buffer = triangle_vertices_buffer.buffer;
        triangle_vertices_info.offset = 0;
        triangle_vertices_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo normal_info{};
        normal_info.buffer = normal_buffer.buffer;
        normal_info.offset = 0;
        normal_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        // Only add descriptor writes for non-null buffers
        if (bvh_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 0;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &bvh_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (primitive_indices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 1;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &prim_indices_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (transform_matrices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 2;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &transform_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (primitive_types_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 3;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &prim_types_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (primitive_uuids_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 4;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &prim_uuids_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (primitive_positions_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 5;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &prim_positions_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (object_subdivisions_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 6;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &obj_subdivisions_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (twosided_flag_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 7;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &twosided_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (patch_vertices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 8;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &patch_vertices_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (triangle_vertices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 9;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &triangle_vertices_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (normal_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 10;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &normal_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Mask/UV texture data buffers (bindings 11-16)
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_data_info{};
        mask_data_info.buffer = mask_data_buffer.buffer;
        mask_data_info.offset = 0;
        mask_data_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_sizes_info{};
        mask_sizes_info.buffer = mask_sizes_buffer.buffer;
        mask_sizes_info.offset = 0;
        mask_sizes_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_offsets_info{};
        mask_offsets_info.buffer = mask_offsets_buffer.buffer;
        mask_offsets_info.offset = 0;
        mask_offsets_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo mask_IDs_info{};
        mask_IDs_info.buffer = mask_IDs_buffer.buffer;
        mask_IDs_info.offset = 0;
        mask_IDs_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo uv_data_info{};
        uv_data_info.buffer = uv_data_buffer.buffer;
        uv_data_info.offset = 0;
        uv_data_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo uv_IDs_info{};
        uv_IDs_info.buffer = uv_IDs_buffer.buffer;
        uv_IDs_info.offset = 0;
        uv_IDs_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (mask_data_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 11;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &mask_data_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (mask_sizes_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 12;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &mask_sizes_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (mask_offsets_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 13;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &mask_offsets_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (mask_IDs_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 14;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &mask_IDs_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (uv_data_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 15;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &uv_data_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (uv_IDs_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 16;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &uv_IDs_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo bbox_verts_info{};
        bbox_verts_info.buffer = bbox_vertices_buffer.buffer;
        bbox_verts_info.offset = 0;
        bbox_verts_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (bbox_vertices_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_geometry;
            write.dstBinding = 17;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &bbox_verts_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // ========== Set 1: Material/Source Buffers ==========
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo source_pos_info{};
        source_pos_info.buffer = source_positions_buffer.buffer;
        source_pos_info.offset = 0;
        source_pos_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo source_types_info{};
        source_types_info.buffer = source_types_buffer.buffer;
        source_types_info.offset = 0;
        source_types_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo source_rot_info{};
        source_rot_info.buffer = source_rotations_buffer.buffer;
        source_rot_info.offset = 0;
        source_rot_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo source_widths_info{};
        source_widths_info.buffer = source_widths_buffer.buffer;
        source_widths_info.offset = 0;
        source_widths_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo source_fluxes_info{};
        source_fluxes_info.buffer = source_fluxes_buffer.buffer;
        source_fluxes_info.offset = 0;
        source_fluxes_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo reflectivity_info{};
        reflectivity_info.buffer = reflectivity_buffer.buffer;
        reflectivity_info.offset = 0;
        reflectivity_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo transmissivity_info{};
        transmissivity_info.buffer = transmissivity_buffer.buffer;
        transmissivity_info.offset = 0;
        transmissivity_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (source_positions_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 0;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &source_pos_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (source_types_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 1;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &source_types_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (source_rotations_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 2;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &source_rot_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (source_widths_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 3;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &source_widths_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (source_fluxes_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 4;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &source_fluxes_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (reflectivity_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 5;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &reflectivity_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (transmissivity_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 6;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &transmissivity_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Specular property buffers
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo specular_exponent_info{};
        specular_exponent_info.buffer = specular_exponent_buffer.buffer;
        specular_exponent_info.offset = 0;
        specular_exponent_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo specular_scale_info{};
        specular_scale_info.buffer = specular_scale_buffer.buffer;
        specular_scale_info.offset = 0;
        specular_scale_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo source_fluxes_cam_info{};
        source_fluxes_cam_info.buffer = source_fluxes_cam_buffer.buffer;
        source_fluxes_cam_info.offset = 0;
        source_fluxes_cam_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (specular_exponent_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 7;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &specular_exponent_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (specular_scale_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 8;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &specular_scale_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (source_fluxes_cam_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 9;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &source_fluxes_cam_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo band_map_info{};
        band_map_info.buffer = band_map_buffer.buffer;
        band_map_info.offset = 0;
        band_map_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (band_map_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 10;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &band_map_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Translucent cover (glass/plastic) buffers: bindings 11 (is_glass), 12 (glass_n), 13 (glass_KL).
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo is_glass_info{};
        is_glass_info.buffer = is_glass_buffer.buffer;
        is_glass_info.offset = 0;
        is_glass_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo glass_n_info{};
        glass_n_info.buffer = glass_n_buffer.buffer;
        glass_n_info.offset = 0;
        glass_n_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo glass_KL_info{};
        glass_KL_info.buffer = glass_KL_buffer.buffer;
        glass_KL_info.offset = 0;
        glass_KL_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (is_glass_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 11;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &is_glass_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
        if (glass_n_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 12;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &glass_n_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
        if (glass_KL_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_materials;
            write.dstBinding = 13;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &glass_KL_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // ========== Set 2: Result Buffers ==========
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo rad_in_info{};
        rad_in_info.buffer = radiation_in_buffer.buffer;
        rad_in_info.offset = 0;
        rad_in_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo rad_out_top_info{};
        rad_out_top_info.buffer = radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer;
        rad_out_top_info.offset = 0;
        rad_out_top_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo rad_out_bottom_info{};
        rad_out_bottom_info.buffer = radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer;
        rad_out_bottom_info.offset = 0;
        rad_out_bottom_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo scatter_top_info{};
        scatter_top_info.buffer = scatter_top_buffer.buffer;
        scatter_top_info.offset = 0;
        scatter_top_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo scatter_bottom_info{};
        scatter_bottom_info.buffer = scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer;
        scatter_bottom_info.offset = 0;
        scatter_bottom_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (radiation_in_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 0;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &rad_in_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (radiation_out_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 1;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &rad_out_top_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        } else {
            // radiation_out_top_buffer not yet allocated; descriptor update skipped
        }
 
        if (radiation_out_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 2;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &rad_out_bottom_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 3;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &scatter_top_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 4;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &scatter_bottom_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Camera result buffers (bindings 5-9)
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_radiation_info{};
        camera_radiation_info.buffer = camera_radiation_buffer.buffer;
        camera_radiation_info.offset = 0;
        camera_radiation_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_pixel_label_info{};
        camera_pixel_label_info.buffer = camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer;
        camera_pixel_label_info.offset = 0;
        camera_pixel_label_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_pixel_depth_info{};
        camera_pixel_depth_info.buffer = camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer;
        camera_pixel_depth_info.offset = 0;
        camera_pixel_depth_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_scatter_top_info{};
        camera_scatter_top_info.buffer = camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer;
        camera_scatter_top_info.offset = 0;
        camera_scatter_top_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_scatter_bottom_info{};
        camera_scatter_bottom_info.buffer = camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer;
        camera_scatter_bottom_info.offset = 0;
        camera_scatter_bottom_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (camera_radiation_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 5;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_radiation_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (camera_pixel_label_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 6;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_pixel_label_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (camera_pixel_depth_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 7;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_pixel_depth_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (camera_scatter_top_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 8;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_scatter_top_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (camera_scatter_bottom_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 9;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_scatter_bottom_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo radiation_specular_info{};
        radiation_specular_info.buffer = radiation_specular_buffer.buffer;
        radiation_specular_info.offset = 0;
        radiation_specular_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (radiation_specular_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_results;
            write.dstBinding = 10;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &radiation_specular_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // ========== Set 3: Sky Parameters ==========
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_flux_info{};
        diffuse_flux_info.buffer = diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_flux_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_flux_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_peak_dir_info{};
        diffuse_peak_dir_info.buffer = diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_peak_dir_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_peak_dir_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_extinction_info{};
        diffuse_extinction_info.buffer = diffuse_extinction_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_extinction_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_extinction_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo diffuse_dist_norm_info{};
        diffuse_dist_norm_info.buffer = diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.buffer;
        diffuse_dist_norm_info.offset = 0;
        diffuse_dist_norm_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo sky_radiance_params_info{};
        sky_radiance_params_info.buffer = sky_radiance_params_buffer.buffer;
        sky_radiance_params_info.offset = 0;
        sky_radiance_params_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 0;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_flux_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (diffuse_peak_dir_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 1;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_peak_dir_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (diffuse_extinction_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 2;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_extinction_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (diffuse_dist_norm_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 3;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &diffuse_dist_norm_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (sky_radiance_params_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 4;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &sky_radiance_params_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Camera sky buffers (bindings 5-6)
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_sky_radiance_info{};
        camera_sky_radiance_info.buffer = camera_sky_radiance_buffer.buffer;
        camera_sky_radiance_info.offset = 0;
        camera_sky_radiance_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo solar_disk_radiance_info{};
        solar_disk_radiance_info.buffer = solar_disk_radiance_buffer.buffer;
        solar_disk_radiance_info.offset = 0;
        solar_disk_radiance_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (camera_sky_radiance_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 5;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_sky_radiance_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (solar_disk_radiance_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 6;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &solar_disk_radiance_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Camera diffuse-flux + emission-flag buffers (bindings 7-8)
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo camera_diffuse_flux_info{};
        camera_diffuse_flux_info.buffer = camera_diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer;
        camera_diffuse_flux_info.offset = 0;
        camera_diffuse_flux_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo band_emission_flag_info{};
        band_emission_flag_info.buffer = band_emission_flag_buffer.buffer;
        band_emission_flag_info.offset = 0;
        band_emission_flag_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (camera_diffuse_flux_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 7;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &camera_diffuse_flux_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        if (band_emission_flag_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_sky;
            write.dstBinding = 8;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &band_emission_flag_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // ========== Set 4: Debug Counters ==========
 
        VkDescriptorBufferInfo debug_counters_info{};
        debug_counters_info.buffer = debug_counters_buffer.buffer;
        debug_counters_info.offset = 0;
        debug_counters_info.range = VK_WHOLE_SIZE;
 
        if (debug_counters_buffer.buffer != VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
            VkWriteDescriptorSet write{};
            write.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_WRITE_DESCRIPTOR_SET;
            write.dstSet = set_debug;
            write.dstBinding = 0;
            write.dstArrayElement = 0;
            write.descriptorType = VK_DESCRIPTOR_TYPE_STORAGE_BUFFER;
            write.descriptorCount = 1;
            write.pBufferInfo = &debug_counters_info;
            descriptor_writes.push_back(write);
        }
 
        // Apply all descriptor writes
        if (!descriptor_writes.empty()) {
            vkUpdateDescriptorSets(vk_device, static_cast<uint32_t>(descriptor_writes.size()), descriptor_writes.data(), 0, nullptr);
        }
    }
 
} // namespace helios